IngredientsSpatholobus suberectus Dunn is the accepted binomial scientific name for the plant that yields what is recognized in herbal medicine as Spatholobi Caulis (abbreviated SC) — the dried vine stem. The plant belongs to the family Leguminosae and is mainly distributed throughout the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Fujian Province of China. More broadly, it is a climbing vine plant distributed in Guangdong, Fujian, Yunnan, and Guangxi provinces and other neighboring provinces of China, as well as Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar.
It is a perennial woody vine, indigenous to tropical and subtropical forests in China and other Southeast Asian countries. In taxonomic terms, Spatholobus suberectus is distinct from the genus Millettia, although some older Chinese texts use the common name Millettia dielsiana interchangeably; the dry cane of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn is indeed often referenced in Chinese herbal literature under the name Millettia dielsiana, reflecting a historical taxonomic ambiguity now resolved in favour of the genus Spatholobus.
The crude drug has a highly recognizable common name in each of the cultures in which it is used: because the juice obtained from the cross-section of the vine stem is bright red, like chicken's blood, it is named "chicken's blood vine" and called "Jixueteng" in Chinese, "Gye-hyeol-deung" in Korean, and "Ke-huyet-dang" in Vietnamese. In pharmacopeial Latin, the material drug is denominated Caulis Spatholobi or Spatholobi Caulis.
Spatholobus suberectus vine stem (SSVS) is the dried lianoid stem of the leguminous plant, which is mainly distributed in China and some Southeast Asian countries. The drug is collected primarily in autumn and winter: the lianoid stem is harvested, branches and leaves removed, and the stem cut into slices and sun-dried. Constituents are conventionally extracted from the dried vine stems using 95% ethanol, though aqueous (water) decoctions represent the traditional preparation. It is most commonly used as a food additive in southern Asian regions for wine, tea, and soup.
In modern commercial and research contexts, the material is encountered in several forms:
Its use was first recorded in Bencao Beiyao, written by Ang Wang during the Qing dynasty (1694 A.D.). This Materia Medica book indicated that SC has the function of activating blood and invigorating tendons, and it has been used for curing anaemia, menstrual abnormalities, rheumatoid arthritis, and purpura. The vine stem has been widely employed in Chinese medicine to treat hematopoiesis, anemia, rheumatism, and menoxenia in Chinese society for nearly 1000 years.
For hundreds of years, it has demonstrated the effects of activating and tonifying blood, regulating menstruation and relieving pain, and relaxing tendons and activating collaterals; its flavors are described as bitter and sweet, its property is warm, and it is attributed to the liver and kidney meridians according to the theory of traditional Chinese medicine.
In the TCM nosological framework, the herb is classified as a "blood-activating and stasis-dispelling" (huoxue huayu) and "blood-tonifying" (buxue) medicinal, a dual classification that sets it apart from most herbs in its category, which address only one of these functions. Due to its notable effects of promoting blood circulation and tonifying blood, regulating menstruation and relieving pain, this phytomedicine has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for hundreds of years.
It is an important ingredient of traditional Chinese medicine recorded in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, with demonstrated blood-activating and stasis-dissolving efficacy. In clinical practice, it is always used for treating rheumatic arthralgia, irregular menstruation, and paralysis in many Chinese formulas such as Jinkui Shenqi pills and Fukeqianjin formula.
In clinical settings, for treating gynecological, cardio-cerebrovascular, and joint diseases, SSVS is combined with other phytomedicines to form "drug-pairs" or prescriptions, some of which have been recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (2020 Edition).
Spatholobus suberectus vine stem is an important medicinal material in Chinese, Vietnamese, and Korean traditional medicines. Its decoction has long been used to treat blood disorders, such as anemia and menstrual irregularity, as well as rheumatoid diseases. Vietnamese and Chinese pharmacopeias, as well as other professional books, include monographs on this material. In Korea, where it is known as "Gye-hyeol-deung," the vine stem is a widely used blood-activating and stasis-dispelling medicine for the treatment of diseases related to blood stasis syndrome in traditional medicine.
Beyond formal medicinal use, the plant has a well-established history of ethnobotanical food application. It is most commonly used as a food additive in southern Asian regions for wine, tea, and soup. This practice is especially prevalent in the Guangxi region of southern China, where medicinal wines (soaked in rice wine or spirits) incorporating the vine stem are a traditional folk remedy for musculoskeletal complaints.
Phytochemical studies on S. suberectus from 2004 to 2022 have revealed nearly 90 compounds belonging to different classes, such as simple phenols, euflavonoids, isoflavonoids, procyanidins, coumarins, and lignans. A more expansive 2023 systematic review documented an even larger chemical profile: phytochemical studies have revealed that approximately 243 chemical ingredients have been isolated from SC and identified, including flavonoids, glycosides, and phenolic acids.
From published phytochemical results, it is observed that the main chemical constituents of S. suberectus stems are isoflavonoids with different substitution types.
This is the largest and most pharmacologically studied class. The characterised constituents include one flavone, three isoflavones, five flavanones, two flavanonols, and one chalcone. Key individual compounds that have been isolated and studied include:
Simple phenolics were identified from S. suberectus stems. These compounds possess a simple benzene ring with different functionalities, such as hydroxyl (–OH), methoxyl (–OCH3), carboxyl (–COOH), occasionally either propyl or sugar chains. These include protocatechuic acid, protocatechuic acid ethyl ester, and gallic acid. The hot-water extract of S. suberectus showed a total phenolic content of 177.6 mg/g.
A number of phenolic compounds belonging to other types have also been reported, including coumarins, quinones, lignans, and procyanidins. Besides that, some megastigmane-type sesquiterpenes were also isolated.
From a 2013 PubMed-indexed study, additional isolated compounds include: prestegane B, (2R, 3R)-buteaspermanol, (+)-medioresinol, (2R, 3R)-3,7-dihydroxyflavanone, benzeneethanol, 4,7,2'-trihydroxy-4'-methoxyisoflavanol, naringenin, blumenol A, protocatechuic acid ethyl ester, liquiritigenin, 7,4'-dihydroxy-8-methoxy-isoflavone, 3,5,7,3',5'-pentahydroxyflavanone, protocatechuic acid, glycyroside, 8-methylretusin-7-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, 3,3',4',5,6,7,8-heptahydroxyflavan, and dulcisflavan.
Novel compounds identified more recently from the vine stems include: five new compounds named spasuberol A, homovanillyl-4-oxo-nonanoate, spasuberol C, spasuberoside A, and spasuberoside B, together with ten known compounds.
Preclinical research (in vitro and animal studies) has attributed a broad range of biological activities to Spatholobus suberectus extracts and their isolated constituents. Pharmacological studies of SSVS have reported that this phytomedicine exhibits nervous system-regulating, antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antidiabetic, antiosteoclastogenic, antidepressant, and hepatoprotective effects. Each of these areas is detailed below.
This is the pharmacological area most closely aligned with the herb's central traditional use — the treatment of blood disorders. Modern pharmacological research indicates that Spatholobus suberectus can promote the regeneration of blood cells and increase the number of platelets through the synergy of multiple components, targets, and pathways.
In vitro hematopoietic research: an AGM-S3 co-culture system (cells derived from the aorta-gonad-mesonephros region in mouse embryos) was developed to test the hematopoietic effects of either crude extracts or isolated compounds in vitro. Catechin appeared as the most active compound by increasing the population of blood cell surface markers such as CD34+, CD45+, and GPA+CD71+ by 2.5-fold and 1.5-fold at day 14 at a concentration of 10 µM, respectively.
In vivo radiation protection: oral administration of S. suberectus stem ethanolic extract was capable of improving the blood cell profile and reducing intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) serum levels in irradiated mice by the end of a 28-day experiment.
Evidence strength: All hematopoietic evidence is preclinical (in vitro and animal models). No controlled human clinical trials specifically evaluating hematopoietic outcomes of Spatholobus suberectus as a monotherapy have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature searched.
A mechanistic study using human platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and animal models investigated the antiplatelet activity of the ethanolic extract (SSE): vine stems were extracted using 95% EtOH and antiplatelet activity was investigated on platelet aggregation induced by collagen and ADP in human platelet-rich plasma (PRP). For the mechanism study, a glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GP IIb/IIIa) assay using flow cytometric analysis and a thromboxane A2 (TXA2) assay were performed. SSE significantly inhibited ADP- and collagen-induced platelet aggregation in human PRP concentration-dependently without affecting plasma clotting time.
The extract was further assessed in a thromboembolic mouse model. Ethanolic extracts of SSD significantly reduce platelet aggregation and inhibit fibrinogen formation by interacting with the production of thromboxane A, due to the activation of the GP IIb/IIIa receptor. Additional reported cardiovascular effects include: increasing cerebral blood flow, regulating plasma lipid levels for slowing atherosclerotic processes, blocking tumor cell-induced platelet aggregation, and stimulating bioactivity of hematopoietic growth factors.
Evidence strength: The antiplatelet findings used human PRP (an ex vivo system) and animal thromboembolism models. This constitutes meaningful mechanistic data but falls short of controlled clinical evidence in living human subjects.
The hot-water extract of Spatholobus suberectus (SWE) was investigated for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells. SWE dose-dependently scavenged free radicals, showed no cytotoxicity even for LPS-induced macrophage cells, reduced the production of nitric oxide caused by LPS in culture, and decreased protein expression of iNOS and COX-II in cells co-treated with LPS.
At the level of isolated compounds: the anti-inflammatory activity of isolated constituents was evaluated by reducing nitric oxide overproduction in RAW264.7 macrophages stimulated by LPS. Compounds 1 and 8–10 showed strong inhibitory activity with IC50 values of 5.69, 16.34, 16.87, and 6.78 µM, respectively, exhibiting higher activity than the positive drug l-N6-(1-iminoethyl)-lysine (l-NIL) with an IC50 value of 19 µM.
Evidence strength: Anti-inflammatory evidence is exclusively in vitro (cell culture). No human clinical trials examining inflammatory biomarkers in response to Spatholobus suberectus as a single ingredient have been identified.
A rodent study examined the neuroprotective potential of Spatholobus suberectus in a model of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury: treatment with Spatholobus suberectus significantly (P<0.01) decreased MDA and NO levels and increased the activity of SOD and GPX in brain tissues of cerebral ischemic rats compared to I/R rats. Treatment significantly increased the expressions of IL-10 and brain ATP and decreased the expressions of TNF-α, caspase-3, and NF-κB in brain tissues. A comet assay showed that SS-treated rat brains showed less DNA damage than ischemic rats. The study concluded a neuroprotective effect of Spatholobus suberectus in cerebral ischemic rats by its antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activity.
Evidence strength: Evidence is limited to a single rodent ischemia model. No human neuroprotection trials have been identified.
This is one of the most extensively studied pharmacological domains for Spatholobus suberectus in recent years, though all evidence remains preclinical. The diverse pharmacological potential of SSD provides an opportunity for preclinical drug discovery, and comprehensive review data strongly indicate that SSD is an excellent anti-tumorigenic agent that modulates or prevents breast cancer.
Breast cancer (ER+ subtype): A study was designed to investigate the effects of Spatholobus suberectus column extract (SSCE) on the estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) breast cancer cell line MCF-7. Results show that SSCE (80, 160, and 320 µg/mL) significantly decreased the viability of MCF-7 cells. SSCE also triggered apoptosis, arrested the cell cycle at the G0/G1 phase, and inhibited cell migration. A dual-luciferase reporter system showed that SSCE suppressed intranuclear p-ER activity; Western blot analysis confirmed the repressed expression of phosphorylated-ERα, ERK1/2, p-ERK1/2, AKT, p-AKT, p-mTOR, PI3K, and p-PI3K, indicating that SSCE suppressed the MAPK PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC): A study evaluated the anti-TNBC potential of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn percolation extract (SSP) both in vitro and in vivo, through cell viability, morphological analysis of MDA-MB-231 cells, LDH release assay, ROS assay, and tests of GSH-aborted pyroptotic non-inflammasome signaling pathway.
General cancer cell cycle and apoptosis: SSD retarded cancer growth through a mechanism different from those of single isolated constituents such as kaempferol; SSD inhibits tumor cell growth by inducing mitochondrial apoptosis and inhibiting the cell cycle in the G2/M phase.
Signaling pathways: Spatholobus suberectus Dunn exhibits significant anticancer properties through modulating PI3K/Akt/mTOR and RAS/RAF/MAPK pathways.
LDH-A inhibition in breast cancer: A bioactivity-guided study found that epigallocatechin isolated from S. suberectus inhibited lactate dehydrogenase A (LDH-A) in MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. Mechanism studies revealed that disassociation of Hsp90 from HIF-1α and subsequent accelerated HIF-1α proteasome degradation might lead to the LDH-A inhibition induced by epigallocatechin, shedding novel light on the medicinal application of S. suberectus and the potential development of epigallocatechin as LDH-A inhibitors in breast cancer treatment.
Evidence strength: All anticancer evidence is in vitro (cell lines) and animal-model based. The current information on the health implications of SSD allows for future clinical trials to explore its restorative benefits, but no human cancer clinical trials for Spatholobus suberectus as a monotherapy ingredient have been identified in the published literature.
A PMC-indexed study explored the antidiabetic mechanisms of the ethanolic extract: treatment of ethanolic extract of S. suberectus (EeSs) significantly enhanced glucose uptake, mediated through enhanced expression of GLUT4 in skeletal muscle via stimulation of AKT and AMPK pathways in C2C12 cells. EeSs also demonstrated potential inhibitory action on α-glucosidase activity and significantly lowered postprandial blood glucose levels in STZ-induced diabetic mice, associated with increased expression of GLUT4 and AKT and/or AMPK-mediated signaling cascade in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, administration of EeSs significantly boosted antioxidant enzyme expression and mitigated gluconeogenesis enzymes such as PEPCK and G-6-Pase in liver tissue of STZ-induced diabetic mice.
Renal protection in diabetes: In a db/db type 2 diabetes mouse model, mice were administered SS extract (50 mg/kg) orally for 6 weeks. The SS-treated group did not change body weight, blood glucose, or HbA1c levels. However, SS treatment reversed diabetes-induced dyslipidemia and urinary albumin/creatinine ratio. SS administration showed significantly increased protein expression of Nrf2 and significantly upregulated Glo1 and NQO1 expression but reduced CML accumulation and downregulated receptor for AGEs (RAGE). SS also showed significant decrease of PAS-positive staining and AGEs accumulation in histological analyses of kidney tissues. It was concluded that SS ameliorated renal damage by inhibiting diabetes-induced glucotoxicity, dyslipidemia, and oxidative stress through the Nrf2/antioxidant responsive element (ARE) stress-response system.
Evidence strength: Antidiabetic evidence is preclinical (cell culture and STZ-induced or genetic diabetic mouse models). No human clinical trials have been identified.
SWE dose-dependently scavenged free radicals and showed no cytotoxicity even for LPS-induced macrophage cells. In the context of radiation-induced oxidative stress, oral administration of the ethanolic extract improved blood cell profiles and reduced intracellular ROS levels in irradiated rodents. The hot-water extract of Spatholobus suberectus contained the highest amount of phenolics, especially gallic acid, and could be used to develop functional foods or nutraceuticals for preventing inflammatory-related disorders.
A Korean Institute of Oriental Medicine study systematically screened 150 herbal medicines for anti-osteoclast activity and identified S. suberectus as highly active: to evaluate the bone-protective potential of traditional Korean herbal medicines, the effects of water extracts of 150 herbal medicines on RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation were investigated. Among them, the stem of Spatholobus suberectus showed relatively strong inhibitory activity against osteoclast differentiation without adversely affecting cell viability. The water extract of S. suberectus stem (WESS) effectively inhibited osteoclast differentiation from its precursors.
Evidence strength: In vitro and cell-based only. Clinically relevant to osteoporosis and rheumatoid arthritis is speculative based solely on these preclinical findings.
The constituents were evaluated for their ability to inhibit cellular tyrosinase activity and for their melanin inhibitory activity in human epidermal melanocytes (HEMn). Butin was the most efficacious of these constituents and exhibited concentration-dependent effects. These findings have attracted interest in the cosmeceutical industry for skin-brightening applications, though no clinical data confirm efficacy in vivo.
Based on both traditional use and preclinical research, Spatholobus suberectus has been associated with the following body systems and health areas:
The following dosages have been reported in specific studies and should be understood strictly in their original research context:
In traditional Chinese medicine decoction practice, Spatholobi Caulis is typically used at doses consistent with the Chinese Pharmacopoeia; however, no specific dosage ranges from human clinical trials with Spatholobus suberectus as a single-ingredient preparation have been identified in peer-reviewed sources. According to the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China, SC is usually used in combination with other herbal medicines.
A preclinical acute oral toxicity test in rodents administered an extract equivalent to 579 g/kg crude drug daily for 14 days observed no abnormal phenomena such as unusual crying, convulsions, ataxia, or difficult breathing. This points to an extremely high acute oral tolerable dose in rodents, though this finding does not translate directly to human safety. In regard to the absorption-distribution-metabolism-elimination-toxicity (ADMET) of SSVS, few studies have been carried out, and few articles have been published.
The most pharmacologically significant and clinically relevant safety consideration is the herb's established antiplatelet activity. Ethanolic extracts of SSD significantly reduce platelet aggregation and inhibit fibrinogen formation by interacting with the production of thromboxane A through the GP IIb/IIIa receptor. This mechanism is the same as, or complementary to, that of established antiplatelet drugs. As such, the combination of Spatholobus suberectus with anticoagulant or antiplatelet agents (e.g., warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel) represents a theoretically increased bleeding risk, consistent with what has been documented for other blood-activating TCM herbs with similar pharmacological profiles.
Cajinin, calycosin, luteolin, and psi-Baptigenin, among the screened active compounds in SSD, were predicted to enhance the chemotherapeutic drug bioavailability because of inhibition effects on P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. These in silico predictions suggest the potential for pharmacokinetic herb-drug interactions through CYP enzyme inhibition, which could alter the metabolism and blood levels of co-administered drugs. This remains a predicted, rather than experimentally confirmed, interaction for this specific herb.
HPLC analysis has shown that the main components of Spatholobus suberectus are flavonoids that can be classified as phytoestrogens, having a structure similar to estrogen. This phytoestrogenic character is relevant to individuals with hormone-sensitive conditions. The herb's ability to suppress the ER/MAPK/PI3K pathway in vitro is noted, but whether it acts as a net agonist or antagonist at estrogen receptors in a clinical setting depends on numerous variables not yet clarified by human data.
A 2024 PMC study investigated the pharmacokinetic characteristics of four key constituents from Spatholobi Caulis using physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models: the study investigated the pharmacokinetic characteristics of 3′-methoxydaidzein, 8-O-methylretusin, daidzin, and isolariciresinol from SC and provided a convenient method for the pharmacokinetic study in different species. Formal human pharmacokinetic data for the crude extract remain sparse.
In regard to the ADMET properties of SSVS, few studies have been carried out and few articles have been published. With a long history of traditional uses, a variety of bioactive phytochemicals, and a wide range of definite pharmacological activities, SSVS is believed to have great potential in clinical applications and further research, development, and exploitation. The precise action mechanisms, rational quality control and quality markers, and explicit ADMET routes should be highlighted in future research, which might provide effective help to safely, effectively, and sustainably use this herbal medicine.
Previous phytochemical investigations characterized 88 compounds from S. suberectus, which mainly belonged to the phenolic class, especially of the flavonoid type. Pharmacological studies showed beneficial effects of extracts of the plant on the cardiovascular tract, which is ethnopharmacologically relevant to the plant's use in traditional medicine. Besides that, the extracts and isolated compounds also exhibited antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities.
Despite this breadth of preclinical activity, the overall human clinical evidence base for Spatholobus suberectus as a standalone supplement or ingredient is extremely limited. Virtually all modern scientific evidence comes from in vitro cell culture studies and rodent animal models. Robust clinical trials in humans are limited. The herb has been used clinically in China primarily as part of multi-ingredient TCM prescriptions rather than as an isolated preparation, making it difficult to attribute observed outcomes to this ingredient alone. In regard to the ADMET properties of SSVS, few studies have been carried out and few articles have been published. With a long history of traditional uses, a variety of bioactive phytochemicals, and a wide range of definite pharmacological activities, SSVS is believed to have great potential in clinical applications and further research, development, and exploitation.
Health conditions that Spatholobus may help support.
Spatholobus suberectus (Ji Xue Teng, Millettia vine) stem is used in TCM specifically for joint conditions including arthritis and muscle-tendon stiffness. Active catechins, epicatechin, and formononetin exert anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. The Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists it for 'replenishing blood, activating blood circulation, and relaxing tendons.'
Body systems that Spatholobus may help support.
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