IngredientsTara spinosa, commonly known as tara (from the Quechua language), also known as Peruvian carob or spiny holdback, is a small leguminous tree or thorny shrub native to Peru. The accepted current scientific name is Tara spinosa (Molina) Britton & Rose, with the widely used synonym Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze. Tara gum is also known by the synonyms Peruvian carob and Tara-Kern-Mehl, among others. Additional vernacular names in use include taya, guaranga, huarango, algarroba tanino, caranca, and tailĂn.
Tara spinosa is placed in the family Fabaceae, subfamily Caesalpinioideae, and tribe Caesalpinieae.
Caesalpinia spinosa (Molina) Kuntze is a 3–5 (–8) m tall evergreen shrub or tree with thorns on the trunk and branches. It reaches heights of up to 5–8 meters with a spreading canopy and reflexed prickles along its grey-barked branches; it features bipinnate leaves, yellow flowers in axillary racemes, and flattened pods containing 4–7 black seeds rich in galactomannan.
Tara spinosa typically grows 2–5 m tall; its bark is dark gray with scattered prickles and hairy twigs. Leaves are alternate, evergreen, lacking stipules, bipinnate, and lacking petiolar and rachis glands. Leaves consist of three to ten pairs of primary leaflets under 8 cm in length, and five to seven pairs of subsessile elliptic secondary leaflets, each about 1.5–4 cm long.
C. spinosa grows naturally in semi-arid regions that experience an annual rainfall of 230–500 mm and average yearly temperatures of 14.7–27.5 °C. Adapted to semi-arid, seasonally dry tropical conditions, the species thrives in poor, well-drained soils with pH variability and demonstrates high ecological plasticity as a nitrogen-fixing xerophyte. It is distributed from Venezuela to the north of Chile. In Peru, it develops in forests and thickets of arid and semi-arid zones of coastal hills and of the inter-Andean valleys, distributed along almost all the coast, from Piura to Tacna, and in some departments of the highlands.
The largest worldwide producer of tara is Peru, which harvested over 25,500 tons of this plant in 2006 alone. However, this crop is also cultivated in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, and Chile, and is considered a minor commercial crop in North and South Africa, as well as in the Caribbean.
The plant's pods serve as a primary source of tannins for leather tanning and dyeing, while its seeds yield tara gum, a versatile hydrocolloid used as a thickener and stabilizer in food processing, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals due to its superior viscosity and compatibility with other gums.
The three main commercial fractions derived from tara that are relevant in food, pharmaceutical, and dietary-supplement contexts are:
Caesalpinia spinosa, known as tara, is a leguminous native to Peru, widely used in traditional medicine since pre-Hispanic times due to its effects as an antibiotic to fight respiratory-related illness and skin infections. Endemic to Peru, tara has been cultivated by pre-Columbian civilizations since pre-Hispanic times; traditionally, the pods were grown to tan and dye animal hides.
Some 3,000 years ago, pre-Inca cultures used tara pods, which have a high percentage of tannin, beaten with iron, as a black dye for the dyeing of garments. Tara was also used for tanning leather, waterproofing clay pots, and making dyes for textiles, ceramics, and writing.
Tara was traditionally employed in Peruvian folk medicine for treating fever as well as throat and upper-respiratory conditions, skin infections, and wound care. Tara pods and seeds have been used as a source of tannins and gum since pre-Hispanic times due to effects as an antibiotic to fight respiratory-related illness and skin infections.
Tara (Caesalpinia spinosa) has been cultivated for many years by managing natural forests, mainly for pod and seed extraction, and is highly appreciated for its multiple uses since ancient times. Records of medicinal plant use from the Cajamarca region of northern Peru—an area with a two-thousand-year-long ethnobotanical tradition—document Tara spinosa (known as "taya" in that region) as a plant traded actively in local herbal markets. The trade in medicinal plants and nutraceutical beverages (emollients), made from medicinal species, has been recorded in markets in Cajamarca, San Marcos, Bambamarca, Cajabamba, and high Andean communities, with Cajamarca standing out for having the greatest diversity of medicinal plants.
Rural populations also use tara for firewood, farm tools, carpentry, fruit, fodder, and fencing. It is often used as a hedge, shade tree for domesticated animals in dry crops, or even an ornamental tree. Historically, species of the genus Caesalpinia have been used to treat a wide range of ailments such as malaria, ascariasis, dysentery, fever, rheumatism, and influenza.
Tara pods represent 62% of weight with a high percentage of tannins (between 40% and 60%), which are of the hydrolysable type, with gallic acid (GA) as the main constituent that can be isolated by acid hydrolysis. The leaves and fruits contain a high concentration of tannins, ranging from 26.4% to 60.0%, water-soluble, equivalent to 55.1 g of gallotannins in 100 g of tara pods.
Those tannins are of the hydrolysable type. Tara spinosa is cultivated as a source of tannins based on a galloylated quinic acid structure, a chemical structure confirmed also by LC–MS. More specifically, tara extract has been found to be composed of a series of oligomers of polygallic acid attached by an ester link to one quinic acid, which constitute the oligomers in the highest proportion in the extract. Other polygallic chains linked to caffeic acid and methylated quinic, methylated gallic, and methylated caffeic acids are also present.
It has been reported that 40–65% of the fruit mass of C. spinosa corresponds to gallotannins. Gallotannins are hydrolysed at bonds between gallic acid and the polyol centre (ester bonds) and at depside bonds, which are more easily hydrolysed than ester bonds, formed between gallic acids in meta- or para-position.
Tannins in general are phenolic compounds with astringent, antiviral, antibacterial, antiparasitic, and antioxidant properties. Two isolated bioactive monomeric compounds, methyl gallate and gallic acid, were identified as responsible for the bacterial inhibition of Salmonella typhi, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Tara gum is a galactomannan isolated from the endosperm of the seeds of the tara tree, composed mainly of a linear chain of (1-4)-β-d-mannopyranose units with α-d-galactopyranose units attached by (1-6) linkages. The ratio of mannose to galactose in tara gum is 3:1. Chemically, it belongs to the galactomannan family, which also includes guar gum and locust bean gum.
Tara gum (TG) is composed mainly of galactomannans, which can form aqueous solutions (hydrocolloids) with high viscosity without forming gel. TG is considered a healthy alternative for low-fat and low-calorie food products, and its demand has intensified globally, mainly because it is utilized as a thickening agent and stabilizer in food products. The galactose:mannose (G:M) ratio of TG is 1:3 (the same for locust bean gum; guar gum is 1:2). Various functionalities of galactomannans are strongly influenced by the G:M ratio—solubility increases with higher galactose content. TG solutions attain high viscosity immediately when suspended with water and are also found to have synergistic interaction with xanthan gum.
Tara gum (E 417) is unlikely to be absorbed intact and is expected to be fermented by intestinal microbiota. Galactomannan can withstand stomach and small intestine digestion to reach the lower digestive tract and is fermented by intestinal microbiota to produce beneficial bioactivators, functioning as a dietary fibre.
Tara seed germ (TSG) contains 43.4% (w/w) proteins and 14% lipids, consisting of 83.6% unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic acid. Ash content is surprisingly high (6.5%) because of elevated concentrations of phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. TSG also contains a complex array of flavone C-glycosides, and the high abundance of phenolic compounds endowed with potential health-promoting properties, together with large quantities of plant-derived proteins with good biological value, suggests it could meet requirements to be considered a functional food ingredient.
Phytochemical investigations of genus Caesalpinia have also led to the isolation of triterpenoids, diterpenes, flavonoids, steroids, and phenolic compounds.
Previous studies have demonstrated that the aqueous extract of tara has an IC50 value of antioxidant activity greater than that of ascorbic acid and is able to control the degradation of hyaluronan. In vitro studies have evaluated antioxidant activity by ABTS radical-scavenging, ORAC (oxygen radical absorbance capacity), and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power) assays. The antioxidant efficacy of 100 ppm total phenolics of hydrolysates at 9 hours showed that the compounds were significantly more efficient than a similar concentration of the synthetic antioxidant TBHQ to retard soybean oil oxidation, indicating that 4 and 9 hours of chemical hydrolysis of tara pod extracts are sufficient to obtain a product with good antioxidant properties for use as an alternative to synthetic antioxidants.
In addition to the antioxidant profile, C. spinosa extract contains active compounds for the control of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, established by in vitro studies and by in vivo treatment of tilapia infected with Flavobacterium columnare. From the isolation of the bioactive fraction of the extract, two compounds — methyl gallate and gallic acid — were identified as responsible for the bacterial inhibition of Salmonella typhi, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus.
The standardized P2Et extract obtained from Caesalpinia spinosa has shown antioxidant and direct antitumor activity, as well as activation of a specific immune response through the induction of tumor immunogenic cell death in breast and melanoma cancer models. This work is preclinical (in vitro and in vivo animal models) only; no clinical human evidence exists.
Galactomannan gums modulate small bowel absorption of nutrients, with beneficial effects reported for cholesterol metabolism and glycemic control, relating to their rheological properties. Because tara gum is a member of the galactomannan family with a 3:1 mannose:galactose ratio, similar mechanisms are considered plausible but have not yet been specifically established in controlled human trials for tara gum per se.
Evidence level: In vitro / food-science; no controlled human clinical trials.
Multiple in vitro studies have characterized the antioxidant activity of tara pod extracts. A study published in the Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture (Skowyra et al., 2014, PMID 23929224) examined both aqueous and ethanolic extracts of tara pods: the results of this study indicated that ethanolic tara extracts may be suitable for use in food, cosmetic, and nutraceutical applications. The same study measured phenol and flavonoid content and evaluated antioxidant activity via ABTS, ORAC, and FRAP. All analyzed samples showed good antioxidant capacity, but the use of a solution of ethanol 75% in a 1-hour ultrasonic process allowed achieving the greatest quantity of phenolics.
A further investigation of hydrolysates (Chambi et al., 2013, cited in Aguilar-Galvez et al., 2014) found that the antioxidant potential of tara pod extracts rich in gallotannins submitted to chemical hydrolysis showed an increase in the release of gallic acid during the hydrolysis process and an increased antioxidant activity compared to the non-hydrolyzed samples. After 4 hours of hydrolysis (38.8% degree of hydrolysis), the highest antioxidant capacity was obtained, reaching values of 25.9, 23.8, and 8.8 µmol Trolox equivalent/mg gallic acid equivalent measured by ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC methods, with lipophilicity diminishing from 0.8 to 0.3 (log P value). All evidence in this area remains in vitro and food-science level; no randomized controlled trials in humans have been reported.
Evidence level: In vitro and limited preclinical in vivo; no human clinical trials.
Gallotannins obtained from tara pod extracts (EE) and from the products of acid hydrolysis for 4 and 9 hours (HE-4 and HE-9) were characterized for their composition, antioxidant activity, antimicrobial activity (AA), and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Results showed that EE exerted the highest inhibitory activity against Staphylococcus aureus, followed by Pseudomonas fluorescens; the antibacterial potency was enhanced after EE hydrolysis only against S. aureus. The lowest MIC value (0.13 mg gallic acid equivalent/mL) was exerted by HE-4 against S. aureus. These results indicate that tara gallotannins have the potential to inhibit pathogenic bacteria with potential application in foods as antimicrobials.
Anti-inflammatory, antifungal, antibacterial, and antiseptic properties have been attributed to tara tannins. Evidence for antimicrobial activity in humans is entirely absent. Existing data are generated in culture-based assays or animal models.
Evidence level: Preclinical (in vitro and animal models) only.
The standardized P2Et extract obtained from Caesalpinia spinosa has shown antioxidant and direct antitumor activity, as well as activation of a specific immune response through the induction of tumor immunogenic cell death in breast and melanoma cancer models. A genotoxicity/mutagenicity evaluation using OECD guidelines was conducted at P2Et doses of 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg body weight in mice; the difference between the number of micronuclei in polychromatic erythrocytes across the groups was not statistically significant, suggesting no genotoxic concern at those dose levels. No human clinical trials have tested tara extracts for cancer-related endpoints.
Evidence level: Regulatory review completed; no dedicated clinical dietary supplement trials for human health outcomes.
The EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS) conducted a scientific opinion re-evaluating the safety of tara gum (E 417) as a food additive. Tara gum (E 417) had previously been evaluated by the EU Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) and by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), both of whom allocated an acceptable daily intake (ADI) 'not specified' for this gum.
Tara gum (E 417) is unlikely to be absorbed intact and is expected to be fermented by intestinal microbiota. No adverse effects were reported at the highest doses tested in subchronic, chronic, and carcinogenicity studies, and there is no concern with respect to genotoxicity. The EFSA Panel concluded that there is no need for a numerical ADI for tara gum (E 417) and that there is no safety concern for the general population at the refined exposure assessment at the reported uses and use levels.
Tara gum did not induce parental, reproductive, or developmental toxicity up to the highest dose tested, 2,500 mg tara gum/kg body weight per day, from EFSA's study of dietary three-generation toxicity and a developmental study in rats.
Evidence level: In vitro / food-science laboratory studies.
Tara pod powder has been studied as a natural antioxidant in meat systems. Research published in PMC (Velasco et al., 2016) examined the effect of dried pod powder on lipid oxidation and colour stability of pork meat batter during chilled storage at 4 °C for 21 days, finding that tara pod powder reduced lipid oxidation compared to controls. Tara tannins are used in the manufacture of leather furniture, as a wine clarifier, and as a source for obtaining the antioxidant gallic acid used in the oil industry. These applications are industrial or food-system-level and do not constitute human clinical evidence for dietary supplement use.
Evidence level: In vitro and traditional-use only; no human clinical data specifically for C. spinosa.
Several members of the species of genus Caesalpinia are used traditionally for a wide variety of ethnomedical properties such as anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective effects. Gallic acid, the principal hydrolysis product of tara tannins, has been widely studied for inhibition of pro-inflammatory signalling pathways in in vitro systems; however, the evidence pertaining specifically to C. spinosa extracts in human inflammation trials does not exist in the peer-reviewed literature.
Evidence level: Preclinical in vitro; cosmetic safety testing in aquatic models.
This evidence has allowed consideration of the use of C. spinosa extracts in cosmetic formulations not only as a preservative, but also for inducing the formation of a protective film on the surface of skin. A study in Frontiers in Sustainability (2021) evaluated the safety profile of C. spinosa aqueous extract in Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) as a model toward dermocosmetic application. The findings were relevant for safety profiling but are not a substitute for human clinical evidence.
No standardized dosage for human dietary supplement or pharmaceutical use of tara extract or tara pod powder has been established in peer-reviewed clinical research. The following dosages appear specifically in study reports:
No human clinical trials have established a therapeutic dose for any health indication.
Tara gum (E 417) has been evaluated by the EU Scientific Committee for Food (SCF) and by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), both of whom allocated an acceptable daily intake (ADI) 'not specified' for this gum. EFSA assessed tara gum together with other galactomannans and concluded that there is no safety concern for the general population at reported use levels. No Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) was specified, which typically indicates a very low level of toxicological concern.
In a more recent re-evaluation of its safety profile, the EFSA panel on food additives has excluded concerns for humans associated with the consumption of even large quantities of tara gum.
This section concerns a distinct fraction (seed germ flour, TSG) that is sharply differentiated from tara gum and tara pod tannin extract.
When introduced into a commercial food product called "Daily Harvest's French Lentil and Leek Crumbles" in April 2022, tara seed germ flour caused an outbreak of acute gastrointestinal and liver disease that affected at least 393 people before it was removed from the market in late June 2022.
"Tara flour derived from the tara seed germ has not been adequately characterized nor previously utilized as a human food ingredient in the United States." Tara flour was identified by Daily Harvest Inc. as the likely causative agent in a foodborne illness outbreak related to consumption of a French Lentil and Leek Crumbles product, resulting in hundreds of reports of adverse events including gastrointestinal distress, hepatotoxicity, and hospitalization.
In recent years, some North American companies introduced TSG flour as an ingredient in high-protein crumbles and "superfood" smoothies. TSG was indicated as the alleged causative agent of an outbreak of serious acute adverse health events affecting hundreds of people, including sharp abdominal pain, black urine, liver damage, and gallbladder failure. The outbreak forced the companies involved to issue a recall of their food products, while the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) continued its investigation.
Some nonprotein amino acids constitutively occurring in tara germ, such as baikiain, have been identified as the most plausible toxic agents of TSG. A study hypothesized that in vivo metabolism of metabolically unstable baikiain results in a toxic metabolite that depletes glutathione and/or is an irreversible enzyme inhibitor (for L-pipecolate oxidase), resulting in adverse events that are dependent on the dose consumed and potentially exacerbated by specific genetic predispositions.
Research conducted by the Department of Internal Medicine in Kingston, Canada, involved two patients who had consumed a "new smoothie product" containing tara flour in the same month. Both patients independently presented at the hospital with epigastric pain and acute liver injury, and they experienced a recurrence of acute liver injury upon further consumption.
While the results of studies assist in the characterization of the hazard profile of baikiain, and the composition of tara flour, they have not established conclusive evidence to explain the illnesses associated with the Daily Harvest French Lentil and Leek Crumble products. The U.S. FDA's investigation was ongoing as of 2024.
Chemical analysis of the recalled food product confirmed the presence of tara flour and absence of toxic compounds, microbial pathogens, mycotoxins, major allergens, pesticides, hepatitis A, and norovirus; therefore, the tara flour itself was implicated as the likely source of hepatotoxin.
Because of both the botanical origin and the polysaccharidic nature of gums, they can be a substrate of microbiological contamination and of field and storage fungal development. This has been recently demonstrated by mycotoxin contaminations of gums.
The mutagenicity and genotoxicity profile of the standardized P2Et extract of Caesalpinia spinosa was evaluated by OECD 1997 guidelines (genotoxicity) and OECD 2016 guidelines (mutagenicity). At P2Et doses of 500, 1,000, and 2,000 mg/kg body weight in mice, the difference between the number of micronuclei in polychromatic erythrocytes across the groups was not statistically significant, indicating no mutagenic signal at those doses.
The safety profiles of the three main tara fractions differ substantially and must not be conflated:
Health conditions that Tara may help support.
Body systems that Tara may help support.
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