Taraxacum

Taraxacum: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Natural Source

The genus Taraxacum is a member of the family Asteraceae, subfamily Cichorioideae, tribe Lactuceae, and is widely distributed in the warmer temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere. Commonly known as dandelion, the plant belongs to the Asteraceae family. Its scientific name comes from Greek, where "taraxos" means disorder and "akos" means remedy, while the term "officinale" indicates its medicinal relevance. The common name "dandelion" probably comes from the French dent de lion, meaning "teeth of the lion," referring to the tooth-like edges of the leaves.

The genus Taraxacum has a long history of use as a medicinal plant and is widely distributed around the world. There are over 2,500 species in the genus recorded as medicinal plants in China, Central Asia, Europe, and the Americas. In spite of all the research carried out, less than 1% of all the species identified so far (>2,500) have been studied, including Taraxacum officinale, Taraxacum coreanum, Taraxacum mongolicum, and Taraxacum platycarpum.

The plant secretes a milky white latex and can reach a height of up to 60 cm. It forms a basal rosette of deeply lobed dark green leaves, and its robust taproot can grow 15–45 cm in length. Originally native to Eurasia, as a result of its hardiness and easy propagation, the dandelion has become widely established across several continents. It has been introduced to southern Africa, the Americas, Australia, and New Zealand. It grows in temperate regions of the world in areas with moist soils.

Common Names and Synonyms

• Scientific/Latin: Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg. (common dandelion); Taraxacum mongolicum Hand.-Mazz. (Chinese dandelion)
• Pharmacopoeial terms: Taraxaci herba (whole herb, TCM); Taraxaci folium (leaf, EMA); Taraxaci radix (root, EMA)
• Common names: Dandelion (English); Löwenzahn (German); Pissenlit (French); Pu Gong Ying (Chinese, 蒲公英)

Medicinal Plant Parts

All parts of the plant are used medicinally, but the root, leaf, and whole herb are the parts most recognized by regulatory bodies. Taraxaci herba has been certified as a traditional medicine plant, with flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenoids identified and separated. According to historical documents, it is a plant medicine that can be used as a whole herb, and it has been used for a long time to treat acute inflammation, colds and fever, bacterial infections, and so on.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Ancient and Classical Antiquity

Dandelions have been used by humans for food and as a herb for much of recorded history. They were well known to ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, and are recorded to have been used in traditional Chinese medicine for over a thousand years. The Greek naturalist Theophrastus (371–287 BCE) recommended that the herb be taken as a tonic, especially against freckles and liver spots on the skin.

Arab and Medieval European Medicine

The earliest written references to dandelion in European medicine come from Arab physicians of the 10th and 11th centuries, who described the plant under the name tarakhshaqun — the likely etymological root of the modern Latin genus name Taraxacum. In Europe, dandelion appears in herbal texts from the 13th century onwards, with Albertus Magnus and later medieval herbalists describing its use as a spring tonic and digestive bitter. By the Renaissance, it had become a standard entry in European pharmacopoeias.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

The literature review indicates that dandelion, a medicinal and edible plant, has been extensively utilized in traditional Chinese medicine since the 7th century. Documented in the Tang Herbal Medicine (Tang Dynasty, AD 657–659), its medicinal properties cover a wide range of applications such as acute mastitis, lung abscess, conjunctival congestion, sore throat, damp-heat jaundice, and vision improvement. In the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (Edition 2020), more than 40 kinds of China-patented drugs containing Taraxaci herba were recorded.

European Folk Medicine

In Europe, its edible and medicinal properties began to be acknowledged and applied during the Middle Ages. In ethnomedical practice, dandelion has been used as a diuretic, laxative, anti-inflammatory remedy, and digestive aid. Dandelions were fermented into wine for consumption by the ancient Celts, and the plants were consumed by Anglo-Saxon tribes to prevent scurvy and for use as a diuretic and laxative.

The variety of ways to prepare the raw material is noteworthy; fresh and dried raw materials were used to make extracts, tinctures, decoctions, infusions, wrap compresses, syrups, and even wine or coffee substitutes. These preparations were prepared individually for particular ailments.

North American Traditions

The plant was used as food and medicine by Native Americans. Dandelions were probably brought to North America on the Mayflower for their supposed medicinal benefits. The root was dried and roasted and used as a coffee alternative during the Second World War.

Ayurvedic and Other Asian Traditions

Species of Taraxacum have been employed as a diuretic for over 2,000 years in both Traditional Chinese Medicine and in Ayurvedic medicine.

Summary of Traditional Indications

The perennial weed has been known since ancient times for its curative properties and has been utilized for the treatment of various ailments such as dyspepsia, heartburn, spleen and liver complaints, hepatitis, and anorexia. Traditional preparations across cultures have included decoctions of the root for liver and digestive support, leaf preparations as diuretics and tonics, and the expressed juice of fresh plant parts as choleretics.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Building on the 197 compounds reported from T. officinale, a 2026 systematic review highlights over 180 newly identified compounds from 19 Taraxacum species, expanding the genus-wide catalog to more than 380 constituents. Phytochemical concentrations vary by plant part, developmental stage, extraction solvent, and growing conditions. Notably, phytochemical concentrations vary significantly according to plant part (root versus aerial tissues), developmental stage, extraction solvent, and growing conditions.

Sesquiterpene Lactones

The chemical composition consists of phenolic compounds (polyphenolic acids, flavonoids, coumarins, tannins), sesquiterpene lactones (taraxacin, lactucopicrin, and cichorin, found mostly in the roots), triterpenes (α-amyrin, β-amyrin, lupeol, taraxol, taraxasterol), sterols (stigmasterol, β-sitosterol), polysaccharides (especially inulin in roots), minerals, amino acids, and vitamins that can be found in all organs of the species. Taraxacin, taraxinic acid, lactucopicrin, lactucin, and cichorin are chief bitter principles and belong to the guaianolide class. The plant contains a crystalline substance, taraxacerin (or taraxaceron), which is reported to be a bitter resin.

Triterpenes and Sterols

Taraxasterol, β-amyrin, lupeol, and taraxarol represent key bioactive components responsible for anticancer activities. Taraxasterol, in particular, has attracted attention for its diverse pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticarcinogenic activities.

Phenolic Acids

Several hydroxybenzoic acids (protocatechuic, vanillic, syringic, and gallic acids), hydroxycinnamic acids (p-coumaric, caffeic, ferulic, and synapic acids), and derivatives (chlorogenic, caftaric, and chicoric acids) were identified in T. officinale, and chicoric acid was the main compound found in the aerial parts. Phenolic acids, including caffeic acid, chicoric acid, chlorogenic acid, and monocaffeoyltartaric acid, are abundant in the roots, flowers, and aerial parts.

Flavonoids

Dandelion also contains flavonoids, such as quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, luteolin, catechins, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, quercitrin, and rutin. Dandelion leaves and flowers contain polyphenols, mainly hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives and flavonoids (apigenin and luteolin derivatives). They are characterized by strong antioxidant and hypocholesterolemic properties.

Polysaccharides

Inulin (a class of fibers known as fructans) is also present in large amounts in the dandelion root. Inulin is a prebiotic fructan that escapes digestion in the small intestine and is fermented by colonic bacteria, contributing to gut microbiota modulation.

Carotenoids and Vitamins

Carotenoids present include lutein and violaxanthin. Coumarins identified include esculin and scopoletin. Dandelion leaves contain appreciable amounts of ascorbic acid (34.70 ± 0.026 mg/100 g), β-carotene (3.88 ± 1.473 mg/100 g), and total chlorophyll.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Alongside luteolin and chicoric acid, taraxasterol is involved in anti-inflammatory activity. It led to the downregulation of iNOS and COX-2 expression and production, mediated through the inhibition of ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Taraxasterol, isolated from T. officinale, exhibits protective effects in a murine model of endotoxic shock induced by lipopolysaccharides. It achieves this by modulating the secretion of inflammatory cytokines and significantly reducing serum levels of TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β, IL-6, NO, and PGE2 in mice. Taraxasterol, a compound found in Taraxacum herba, has been shown to inhibit inflammation by regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway and activating the Nrf2 pathway, which promotes antioxidant activity.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

There was an increase in the levels of antioxidant enzymes, including catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase. The methanolic extract of Taraxacum demonstrated significantly higher antioxidative activity compared to the aqueous extract, which could be related to the higher phenolic content, including luteolin and chicoric acid.

Antidiabetic / Glycemic-Control Mechanisms

Plant products and plant-derived compounds from dandelion exhibit antidiabetic effects through mechanisms such as reducing the activity of enzymes (α-amylase, β-galactosidase, and α-glucosidase) that break down sugars, including polysaccharides, inhibiting renal glucose reabsorption, and acting through potassium channels. Phenolic acids like caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, and chicoric acid, found mainly in the root and leaves, contribute significantly to the plant's hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, and antidiabetic effects. Their well-documented antioxidant activity not only supports cellular protection but also the plant's use in glycemic control, by its capacity to inhibit α-glucosidase enzymes.

Anticancer Mechanisms (Preclinical)

Key bioactive compounds, such as taraxasterol, chlorogenic acid, chicoric acid, and taraxinic acid, have been identified as promising agents capable of inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and modulating oncogenic pathways. Chicoric acid reduced gastric cancer cell viability (SGC7901, MGC803) in a dose-dependent manner (5–100 μM) through AMPK activation and autophagy induction.

Diuretic Mechanisms

Dandelion has traditionally been used for detoxification, diuresis, liver protection, the treatment of various inflammations, and antimicrobial properties. The potassium content of dandelion leaf is proposed to partially offset potassium losses that might otherwise accompany increased urinary output, a feature that distinguishes it from many synthetic diuretics in traditional contexts.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Diuretic Activity

Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber (Asteraceae) has been extensively employed as a diuretic in traditional folk medicine and in modern phytotherapy in Europe, Asia, and the Americas without prior clinical trial substantiation. In a pilot study, a high-quality fresh leaf hydroethanolic extract of the medicinal plant T. officinale (dandelion) was ingested by volunteers to investigate whether an increased urinary frequency and volume would result.

Baseline values for urinary frequency and excretion ratio (urination volume:fluid intake) were established 2 days prior to dandelion dosing (8 mL TID) and monitored throughout a 1-day dosing period and 24 hours postdosing. Ingestion of T. officinale ethanolic extract significantly increased urinary frequency (p < 0.05). The excretion ratio also rose significantly (p < 0.001) after administration. Participants (n=17) showed a mean age of 37.9 years in a 4-day study. No adverse events were recorded, highlighting the extract's safety.

Based on these first human data, T. officinale ethanolic extract shows promise as a diuretic in humans. Further studies are needed to establish the value of this herb for induction of diuresis in human subjects. This small, uncontrolled pilot study without a placebo arm represents the principal human clinical data available on dandelion as a diuretic; the evidence base remains preliminary.

5.2 Hepatoprotective Activity

Hepatoprotective, antioxidant, and anticancer activities are the most frequently reported medicinal properties of Taraxacum officinale in the scientific literature. However, the evidence is predominantly preclinical. Studies have demonstrated that Taraxacum officinale leaf extract is able to prevent and treat non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in animal models. A study showed that this plant's leaf extract has hepatoprotective activity against sodium dichromate-induced liver injury in vivo.

When an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species was induced by 300 mM ethanol in vitro, cell viability was drastically decreased by 39%. However, in the presence of hot water extract (TOH) from T. officinale root, no hepatocytic damage was observed in the cells treated with ethanol. Direct hepatic human trial data for dandelion root remain limited, which means the dandelion component is currently supported more strongly by phytochemical and preclinical rationale than by direct liver RCT evidence. While preclinical studies are promising, further clinical trials are essential to confirm the safety and efficacy of T. officinale in the treatment of liver diseases. Determining the optimal dosing, evaluating its potential as an adjuvant in pharmacological treatments, as well as evaluating possible interactions with conventional drugs, is necessary.

5.3 Antidiabetic and Glycemic Activity

Different extracts (methanolic, chloroform, aqueous, petroleum ester) of dandelion root were tested for antidiabetic activity in mice with normal glycemia and alloxan-induced diabetes. The authors also carried out in vitro glucose uptake assays using HepG2 and 2-NDBG cells. Results showed that an aqueous extract of Taraxacum officinale root (400 mg/kg) caused a significant decrease in blood glucose levels (62.33%, p ≤ 0.05), while other extracts showed statistically insignificant activity in mice with alloxan-induced diabetes.

The synergistic hypoglycemic effect of dandelion root extract (DRE) and Radix Astragali extract (RAE) was evaluated. Results showed that water extract of dandelion (DRE-w), mainly containing polysaccharides (63.92 ± 1.82 mg/g), total flavonoid (2.57 ± 0.06 mg/g), total phenolic compounds (8.93 ± 0.34 mg/g), and saponins (0.54 ± 0.05 mg/g), exhibited significant inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase and α-amylase. DRE-w and RAE had synergistic hypoglycemic effects and could relieve the state of insulin resistance in IR-HepG2 cells.

Novel butyrolactone compounds from T. officinale (IC50 145.3–181.3 μM) showed α-glucosidase inhibitory activities similar to that of acarbose (IC50 179.9 μM). Compound 7 and compound 12 were the most potent inhibitors with IC50 values of 61.2 and 39.8 μM respectively. All antidiabetic data in humans remains absent; current evidence is exclusively preclinical (animal and in vitro).

5.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Flavonoids such as luteolin and quercetin have demonstrated strong antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. These compounds are particularly abundant in the leaves and flowers, correlating with their traditional use in treating inflammatory conditions, liver disorders, and skin diseases. Anti-inflammatory effects of polysaccharides isolated from T. officinale in LPS-stimulated murine macrophages RAW 264.7 were also reported. No controlled human trials on the anti-inflammatory effects of dandelion preparations have been reported; this area of evidence is limited to in vitro and animal studies.

5.5 Anticancer Activity

Among the many medicinal plants explored, Taraxacum officinale H.Wigg has recently gained significant attention due to its complex phytochemical profile and promising anticancer activity. A clear connection between the plant's bioactive constituents and their antitumor mechanism of action has been demonstrated in in vitro and in vivo studies. More recent studies have indicated a more explicit antitumor potential for the plant and its active constituents, though without a detailed analysis of the underlying mechanisms.

A mini-review synthesizes current in vitro and in vivo evidence on the antileukemic and antilymphoma potential of T. officinale, emphasizing the phytochemical classes most consistently implicated (notably triterpenoids like taraxasterol and pentacyclic acids) and highlighting methodological limitations of existing studies — dose relevance, lack of pharmacokinetic data, and sparse safety profiling. Future experimental work should accelerate evidence-based development of dandelion-derived therapeutics, while cautioning against premature clinical use without controlled trials. There are no human clinical trials on dandelion as an anticancer agent.

5.6 Prebiotic and Digestive Activity

Sesquiterpene lactones have a bitter taste and are often an ingredient in products that stimulate digestion. The inulin content of dandelion root acts as a prebiotic fructan. The EMA designates dandelion root as a traditional herbal medicinal product used for the relief of symptoms related to mild digestive disorders (such as feeling of abdominal fullness, flatulence, and slow digestion), as well as for temporary loss of appetite. These indications are recognized on the basis of traditional use rather than controlled clinical trial data.

5.7 Choleretic Activity

Dandelion has traditionally been used in herbal medicine to help increase bile flow (choleretic). This activity has been attributed to the bitter sesquiterpene lactone fraction, which stimulates bile secretion through bitter taste receptor activation. Supporting evidence is primarily from animal models and the long tradition of empirical use; controlled human trials in this area are lacking.

5.8 Antioxidant Activity

Twelve medicinal properties of Taraxacum officinale are commonly reported in the scientific literature, comprising diuretic, hepatoprotective, anticolitis, immunoprotective, antiviral, antifungal, antibacterial, antiarthritic, antidiabetic, antiobesity, antioxidant, and anticancer effects. Hepatoprotective, antioxidant, and anticancer activities are the most frequently reported. Antioxidant data is robust at the in vitro level, with consistent findings across multiple extraction methods and plant parts, but no randomized human trials confirming clinically relevant antioxidant outcomes have been published.

5.9 Acute Mastitis (Clinical Use in TCM)

Clinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of Taraxacum herba in treating acute mastitis. This represents one of the few areas where clinical (rather than purely preclinical) data has been reported in the TCM literature, though robust randomized controlled trials meeting Western evidentiary standards are not established.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

Particular attention in the scientific literature has been given to diuretic, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-carcinogenic, analgesic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-coagulatory, and prebiotic effects. By organ system, the body areas most associated with Taraxacum include:

• Hepatobiliary system: Liver protection, increased bile flow (choleretic), support in hepatitis and fatty liver conditions
• Urinary system: Diuresis, urinary tract flushing
• Gastrointestinal system: Digestive bitters, prebiotic (inulin), appetite stimulation, dyspepsia relief, anticolitis effects
• Metabolic / endocrine: Glycemic control, lipid modulation
• Immune and inflammatory pathways: Anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antimicrobial, antifungal
• Oncology (preclinical only): Cytotoxic and antiproliferative activity

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies and Regulatory Monographs

Forms Recognized by the European Medicines Agency (EMA)

The EMA's Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) has issued separate monographs for dandelion leaf (Taraxaci folium) and dandelion root (Taraxaci radix), as well as for the root-with-herb combination. For the root, recognized herbal preparations include: (a) comminuted dried root; (b) expressed juice (DER 1:1) from fresh root subjected to steam of ethanol; (c) juice from fresh root; (d) liquid extract (DER 1:1), extraction solvent ethanol 30% V/V; and (e) tincture (ratio of herbal substance to extraction solvent 1:5), extraction solvent ethanol 45% V/V.

For the dandelion leaf, recognized preparations include: dried leaves (comminuted), liquid extract (DER 1:1) with extraction solvent ethanol 25% (V/V), and expressed juice from fresh leaves.

Dosage as Reported in the Human Diuretic Study

In the pilot study investigating diuretic effects, a high-quality fresh leaf hydroethanolic extract of T. officinale was ingested by volunteers. Volume of urinary output and fluid intake were recorded by subjects. Baseline values for urinary frequency and excretion ratio were established 2 days prior to dandelion dosing at 8 mL three times daily (TID).

Dosages Reported in the Canadian Health Products Monograph

Reported dose ranges from official monographs include 10–20 milliliters of juice of fresh leaf per day (not to exceed 10 mL per single dose), and 12–24 milliliters of juice of fresh root per day (not to exceed 8 mL per single dose).

Traditional Use Indications per Regulatory Bodies

Traditional herbal medicine uses recognized in official monographs include use as a diuretic to increase the amount of urine to achieve flushing of the urinary tract as an adjuvant in minor urinary complaints, as a diuretic more generally, and as a laxative (aperient). Additional recognized uses include treating digestive upset (dyspepsia).

Nutritional Profile

Dandelion leaves contain appreciable amounts of total phenols (5,833.12 ± 4.222 mg/100 g), total flavonoids (188.84 ± 0.019 mg/100 g), ascorbic acid (34.70 ± 0.026 mg/100 g), β-carotene (3.88 ± 1.473 mg/100 g), and total chlorophyll (239.51 ± 0.015 mg/100 g) antioxidants.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

General Safety Profile

Dandelion is described as a nontoxic herb with exceptional biological activity. In the human diuretic pilot study, no adverse events were recorded, highlighting the extract's safety. However, rigorous systematic safety evaluations in humans remain limited.

Allergic Contact Dermatitis

Sesquiterpene lactones are a large, diverse group of chemicals found in several plant families that cause allergic contact dermatitis. The biological, botanical, allergenic, and structural significance of sesquiterpene lactones has been explored, as well as the clinical characteristics of cutaneous reactions. Patch testing with dandelion (Compositae) extract in addition to sesquiterpene lactone (SL) mix in selected patients has been investigated. A case of contact erythema multiforme after patch testing with dandelion was detected. A total of 14 individuals (5.9%) in one study showed allergic reaction to at least one of the plant allergens, with 78.6% of reactions to Compositae extracts.

Systemic Allergic Reactions

Patients with Compositae sensitization are routinely warned against the ingestion of vegetables, spices, teas, and herbal remedies from this family of plants. Other Compositae species suspected of causing systemic reactions include artichoke, mugwort, yarrow, dandelion, feverfew, and elecampane. Some Compositae vegetables and teas may induce systemic reactions through both humoral and cell-mediated mechanisms. The evidence for the occurrence of systemic allergic dermatitis caused by sesquiterpene lactone-containing plants is mostly anecdotal and based on statements from patients rather than scientific data. However, a few clinical reports on accidental sensitization and oral challenge prove the existence of this kind of reaction.

Drug Interactions

Taraxacum officinale may slow down blood clotting and increase the risk of bleeding. Therefore, Taraxacum officinale should be used with caution with medications like aspirin, warfarin, clopidogrel (Plavix), enoxaparin (Lovenox), diclofenac (Voltaren), ibuprofen (Motrin), and naproxen (Aleve, Naprosyn).

Taraxacum officinale contains potassium. If combined with potassium-sparing diuretics (water pills) such as spironolactone, there may be significant increases in blood potassium levels.

Taraxacum officinale may increase urine production, so it may affect how lithium is removed from the body. Increased urine production can slow down lithium removal from the body, leading to increased lithium levels. Adjustments in lithium dose may be required.

One species of dandelion, Taraxacum mongolicum (Chinese dandelion), may lower the amount of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin that the body absorbs. Researchers do not know whether the common dandelion would do the same thing.

Dandelion may act as a diuretic, causing the body to produce more urine to get rid of excess fluid. If prescription diuretics or other herbs that act as diuretics are also taken concurrently, the risk of electrolyte imbalances may increase.

Potential for Hypoglycemia

A first report of hypoglycemia secondary to dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) ingestion has been documented. The antidiabetic mechanism of α-glucosidase inhibition means that combined use with antidiabetic medications may produce additive effects on blood glucose lowering.

Interactions with Anticancer Drugs

Critical translational barriers include standardization of extracts, potential interactions with anticancer drugs (notably tyrosine kinase inhibitors), and the need for rigorous toxicity and human pharmacology studies.

Overall Evidence Landscape

Pharmacology is the main area in which these plants have been tested, thanks in part to its widely known traditional uses; however, there is less than enthusiastic interest in further human clinical trials. Pharmacological investigations have revealed that Taraxacum crude extracts and chemical compounds contain antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anti-oxidative, liver-protective, and blood sugar and blood lipid management properties. Despite this breadth of preclinical activity, most areas — with the partial exception of the diuretic function (one small human pilot study) and the TCM use in acute mastitis — lack controlled human trial data. Research on its effects on neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases remains limited. Future studies should focus on in vivo experiments to explore the material basis and mechanisms underlying the therapeutic effects of dandelion species.

References

• Fan M, Zhang X, Song H, Zhang Y. Dandelion (Taraxacum Genus): A Review of Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Effects. Molecules. 2023;28(13):5022. PMC10343869.
• González-Castejón M, Visioli F, Rodriguez-Casado A. Taraxacum officinale and related species — An ethnopharmacological review and its potential as a commercial medicinal plant. J Ethnopharmacol. 2015;169:244–262. PMID 25858507.
• Gu Y et al. Taraxacum: A Review of Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Activity. PubMed. 2024. PMID 38351703.
• Schütz K, Carle R, Schieber A. Taraxacum — A review on its phytochemical and pharmacological profile. J Ethnopharmacol. 2006;107(3):313–323. PMID 16950583.
• Clare BA, Conroy RS, Spelman K. The Diuretic Effect in Human Subjects of an Extract of Taraxacum officinale Folium over a Single Day. J Altern Complement Med. 2009;15(8):929–934. PMC3155102.
• Mocan A et al. New Approaches on the Anti-Inflammatory and Cardioprotective Properties of Taraxacum officinale Tincture. PMC. 2023. PMC10053582.
• Bioactive Compounds from Vegetal Organs of Taraxacum Species (Dandelion) with Biomedical Applications: A Review. PMC. 2025. PMC11764760.
• New Prospects in Oncotherapy: Bioactive Compounds from Taraxacum officinale. PMC. 2025. PMC12334242.
• Multilateral Use of Dandelion in Folk Medicine of Central-Eastern Europe. PMC. 2025. PMC11723127.
• Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.) as a Source of Biologically Active Compounds Supporting the Therapy of Co-Existing Diseases in Metabolic Syndrome. PMC. 2022. PMC9498421.
• Hypoglycemic Effect of Taraxacum officinale Root Extract and Its Synergism with Radix Astragali Extract. PMC. 2021. PMC8020951.
• Nutritional Profiling, Phytochemical Composition and Antidiabetic Potential of Taraxacum officinale, an Underutilized Herb. PMC. 2022. PMC9457557.
• Antidiabetic Properties of the Root Extracts of Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) and Burdock (Arctium lappa). PMC. 2024. PMC11013470.
• The Role of Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) in Liver Health and Hepatoprotective Properties. PMC. 2025. PMC12299503.
• Taraxacum officinale L. in Leukemia and Lymphoma: Current Knowledge and Prospects for Horticulture. PMC. 2025. PMC12819242.
• Unveiling the Genus Taraxacum: From Folk Medicine to Chemodiversity-Driven Pharmacological and Toxicological Outcomes — A Systematic Review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2026. ScienceDirect.
• Wirngo FE et al. A Comprehensive Review of the Benefits of Taraxacum officinale on Human Health. Bull Natl Res Cent. 2021. Springer Nature.
• Botany, Traditional Use, Phytochemistry, Pharmacology and Quality Control of Taraxaci herba: Comprehensive Review. Pharmaceuticals. 2024;17(9):1113.
• Chemical Constituents from Taraxacum officinale and Their α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activities. Phytochemistry. 2018. PMID 29254644.
• European Medicines Agency (EMA). European Union Herbal Monograph on Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg., radix. EMA/HMPC/475726/2020.
• European Medicines Agency (EMA). Community Herbal Monograph on Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wigg., folium. EMA/HMPC/579636/2008.
• European Medicines Agency (EMA). Community Herbal Monograph on Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wigg., radix cum herba. EMA/HMPC/212895/2008.
• Health Canada. Dandelion — Taraxacum officinale. Natural Health Products Ingredients Database Monograph.
• Jovanović M et al. Sesquiterpene Lactone Mix Patch Testing Supplemented with Dandelion Extract in Patients with Allergic Contact Dermatitis, Atopic Dermatitis and Non-Allergic Chronic Inflammatory Skin Diseases. PubMed. 2004. PMID 15479198.
• Paulsen E. Systemic Allergic Dermatitis Caused by Sesquiterpene Lactones. Contact Dermatitis. 2017;76(1):1–9.
• Wirngo FE et al. Pro-Health Activity of Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale L.) and Its Food Products — History and Present. J Funct Foods. 2019. ScienceDirect.