IngredientsThaumatococcus daniellii (Benth.) is a member of the diverse family Marantaceae â the arrowroot and prayer plant family. Also known as miracle fruit, it is a plant species from tropical Africa. The full scientific binomial is Thaumatococcus daniellii (Benn.) Benth., with the abbreviation "(Benn.)" acknowledging William Freeman Daniel's earlier contribution and "Benth." indicating George Bentham's formal botanical description.
The species name daniellii honors the botanist John Daniell, who contributed significantly to the study of African flora. More precisely, over 170 years ago, Dr. William Freeman Daniel introduced this remarkable plant to the world of science. Daniel was a botanist from the United Kingdom and an army surgeon. George Dawn collected the plant's oldest sterile specimen from São Tomé Island in West Africa in 1822. Due to the plant's popularity as a source of sweetening, the plant attracted the attention of the English surgeon William Daniell in 1856.
Two botanical varieties are recognized: Thaumatococcus daniellii var. daniellii, distributed across western and central Africa from Sierra Leone to Zaire; and T. daniellii var. puberulifolius Dhetchuvi & Diafouka, found in central Africa including Zaire, Gabon, Congo-Brazzaville, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic.
Common names for this plant include katamfe or katempfe, uma in Igbo, ewe eran in Yoruba, Yoruba soft cane, and African serendipity berry; the unrelated species Synsepalum dulcificum is more commonly known by the latter name.
It is a large, rhizomatous, flowering herb native to the rainforests of western Africa from Sierra Leone to Zaire. It grows three to four meters in height and has large, papery leaves up to 46 centimeters long. The ovate-elliptic leaves (up to 60 cm long and 40 cm wide) arise singly from each node of the rhizome. It bears pale purple flowers and a soft fruit containing a few shiny black seeds. The fruit is fleshy, trigonal in shape and matures to a dark red/brown color when fully ripe. At maturity each fruit contains three black, extremely hard seeds. The seeds are enveloped by a sticky, thin, pale yellow basal aril, which contains the sweetening protein, thaumatin.
It is a large, rhizomatous, flowering herb native to the rainforests of western Africa, from Sierra Leone to the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It grows in humid tropical forests and the coastal areas of West Africa, especially in Nigeria, Ghana, the Central African Republic, Uganda, and CĂŽte d'Ivoire. It is also an introduced species in Australia and Singapore.
Thaumatin, the principal active constituent, is obtained by aqueous extraction from the fruit aril. Thaumatin is a natural plant protein, consisting of thaumatin I and thaumatin II proteins together with minor amounts of plant constituents, obtained by acidic aqueous extraction of the arils of the fruit of Thaumatococcus daniellii. After removal of insoluble material, a thaumatin protein is purified by a series of acid precipitations, centrifugation, and filtration steps. The resulting thaumatin solution is then spray-dried to produce a powder. Thaumatin was commercialized in the 1970s under the brand names TalinÂź and San Sweet. In modern commercial applications, thaumatin is extensively used in the food and beverage industry as a low-calorie sweetener and flavor enhancer. It is found in products like chewing gum, confections, dairy items, and beverages.
T. daniellii thrives in deep shade, and it is used locally as a taste modifier and for preparing fish traps, ornamental bags, and mats. In West Africa, the aril is traditionally used for sweetening bread, over-fermented palm-wine, and sour food. T. daniellii is grown in West Africa, as it has traditionally used the lamina of fresh leaves to cover food to increase the shelf life of the food. The leaves are said to give the food wrapped a unique taste, so they are preferred over banana leaves.
In its native range, the plant has a number of uses besides flavoring; the sturdy leaf petioles are used as tools and building materials, the leaves are used to wrap food, and the leaves and seeds have a number of traditional medicinal uses. Leaves of T. daniellii are mostly used as food wrappers, and for thatching roofs in the rural and suburban areas of southwestern Nigeria.
Organs of the plant are used in folkloric medicine as a laxative and in treating ailments such as mental disorders, high blood sugar, and lung diseases. The seeds and leaf sap are used as an antidote against snake venom and bee stings and for preventing dystocia and prolonged child labor. T. daniellii is used medicinally in the Ivory Coast and Congo as a laxative, emetic, and for pulmonary problems. In traditional medicinal use the leaf sap is used as antidote against venoms, stings, and bites.
Like all British army surgeons treating troops in equatorial Africa, Daniel used native medicinal remedies to treat tropical diseases for which Western medicine at the time had no effective cures. He therefore paid particular attention to medicinal and economic plants he came across during his work and travels in West Africa. Samples were obtained from this plant, but the importance of this commercial crop as a source of natural protein sweetener was discovered after a whole century. A 1969 ban on sodium cyclamate in the United States led to extensive research conducted on T. daniellii.
Naturally occurring thaumatin consists of six closely related proteins (I, II, III, a, b, and c), all with a molecular mass of 22 kDa (207 amino acids). The predominant proteins in the food additive E 957 are thaumatin I and thaumatin II present in a ratio 2:1, each cross-linked by eight disulfide bridges. The amino acid sequences of thaumatin I and thaumatin II differ by only two residues. The molecular weights of the two proteins are 22,209 and 22,293 g/mol for thaumatin I and thaumatin II, respectively.
The thaumatins have a normal complement of amino acids, except that histidine is not present. The molecular weights of the thaumatins are approximately 22,000 and their isoelectric points are in the range of 11.5â12.5. There are no unusual side-chains, atypical peptide linkages, or end-groups. Extensive disulfide cross-linking confers to thaumatin thermal stability, resistance to denaturation, and maintenance of the tertiary structure of the polypeptide chain.
The amount of thaumatins in arils of mature fruit is 30â55 mg/g of fresh weight (about 50% of total soluble protein), varying within a wide range depending on the degree of fruit maturity and origin.
Thaumatin is a 22 kDa sweet protein that was isolated from the arils of the katemfe fruit of Thaumatococcus daniellii Benth, which is native to West Africa, by van der Wel and Loeve. It is a basic protein with an isoelectric point of approximately 12 and is 1,600 times sweeter than sucrose. Other reports place the figure higher; the reported sweet intensity is approximately 1,600â2,000 times greater than sucrose. It also gives a cooling sensation and a slight licorice aftertaste.
Thaumatin has the normal calorific value of a protein (4.1 Kcal/g) but in use is essentially non-calorific due to the very low levels required (parts per million).
Thaumatin-like proteins are stable in acidic environments and resistant to heat and digestion. An aqueous solution of commercially available thaumatin is stable under conditions of pH 2â10. It is successfully applied in canning of pet food where it remains stable at temperatures of 120°C and in coatings subjected to dry temperatures of 140°C. Thaumatin is stable under pasteurisation and UHT conditions.
Beyond thaumatin itself, broader phytochemical analyses of the plant's other organs have revealed additional secondary metabolites. Proximate analysis, phytochemical screening, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry revealed that the plant contains proteins, important macro- and microelements (calcium, magnesium, zinc, sodium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, and manganese), and abundant active principles and compounds such as squalene, tannin, alkaloids, saponins, epicatechin, steroids, phlobatannins, anthraquinones, terpenoids, spartein, ribalinidine, rutin, phytic acid, and kaempferol. Phytochemical screening of T. daniellii has confirmed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, anthraquinones, and anthocyanosides, while cyanogenic glycosides are absent.
GC-MS analysis of leaf extracts has further identified specific volatile and lipid-related compounds. The dominant constituents in T. daniellii leaf extracts include hexadecanoic acid (20.82%), 4-methyl octane (13.81%), 1,8-cineole (12.72%), squalene (9.66%), 13-tetradece-11-yn-1-ol (9.44%), α-terpinolene (9.02%), and ÎČ-gurjunene (8.40%).
Thaumatin, a natural high-intensity sweet protein, elicits sweetness through activation of the sweet taste receptor (T1R2/T1R3). All sweet molecules, including sweet-tasting proteins, elicit a sweet taste by interacting with the sweet taste receptor T1R2-T1R3, belonging to the family of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). The activated T1R2-T1R3 receptor triggers the downstream signaling cascades, including the dissociation of the heterotrimeric G protein (α-gustducin, GÎČ3, and GÎł13), leading to the release of intracellular CaÂČâș and ATP exocytosis, which in turn activates purinergic receptors on afferent fibers and results in taste perception.
As sweet-tasting proteins are too large to fit the cavity of the interaction sites for small sweeteners, the activation of sweet receptors by sweet-tasting proteins seems to occur in a different manner compared to other small sweeteners. Sweet proteins such as thaumatin and monellin interact across a larger binding surface that can include both subunits and the cysteine-rich linkers. The human T1R2âmouse T1R3 combination responded to sucralose but not to thaumatin, clearly indicating that a T1R3 subunit from humans is necessary for the interaction with thaumatin. Furthermore, the cysteine-rich domain (CRD) of human T1R3 is important for the interaction with thaumatin.
Thaumatin elicits sweet taste with a threshold of only 50 nM. Studies have suggested that the complex model between the T1R2-T1R3 sweet receptor and thaumatin depends critically on the complementarity of electrostatic potentials. Key residues identified include W418 and E422 of T1R2, S59 of T1R3, and thaumatin residues K67, R82, and K137 that contribute to binding. Mutational studies confirmed the importance of these residues: the sweetness of the K106A mutant was reduced by about three times and those of K78A and K137A were reduced by about five times when compared to wild-type thaumatin.
The "wedge model" proposed by Temussi suggests that sweet proteins may not function as classical agonists but instead stabilize the active receptor conformation by interacting with a secondary binding site.
When the fleshy part of the fruit is eaten, thaumatin binds to the tongue's taste buds, causing sour foods to taste sweet. A significant application is its ability to mask undesirable tastes, including bitterness or metallic notes, in food products and pharmaceuticals.
The most extensively studied and commercially validated application of T. daniellii extract (thaumatin) is as a sweetener and flavor modifier. The most popular use of T. daniellii is as a sweetener. The aril contains a nontoxic, intensely sweet protein named thaumatin, which is at least three thousand times as sweet as sucrose. Substituting synthetic sweeteners, it is used as a noncaloric natural sweetener. Thaumatin is not a carbohydrate and is thus an ideal sweetener for diabetics.
Since the mid-1990s, thaumatin has been used as a sweetener and flavour enhancer by the food and confectionery industries. Although seven plant-derived sweet proteins have been identified â thaumatin, miraculin, monellin, mabinlin, brazzein, pentadin, and curculin (neoculin) â only thaumatin is currently approved as a food additive.
Evidence strength: The sweetness potency and taste-modification properties of thaumatin are well-established through decades of sensory science research, regulatory review, and commercial use. These properties are supported by in vitro receptor binding studies and human sensory evaluation. No controlled clinical trials of thaumatin as a dietary supplement in the strict sense (i.e., testing health outcomes in patients) have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature.
Biological activities of T. daniellii include hypolipidemic, antihyperglycemic, antioxidant, insecticidal, bioremediative, and antimicrobial activities. Research into antioxidant activity has been conducted primarily at the pre-clinical level.
One data article reported on the in vivo biochemical activity of ethanolic extract of T. daniellii leaves (ETD) in male Wistar rats at an oral dose of 500â1500 mg/kg daily for 14 days. Oral treatment with ETD increased organ superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, renal reduced glutathione (GSH) and plasma high density lipoprotein (HDL) concentrations while reducing plasma alanine transaminase (ALT) activity, plasma cholesterol, bilirubin, and organ malondialdehyde (MDA) concentrations (P<0.05). The data indicated that ethanolic extract of T. daniellii leaves shows antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and hepatoprotective potential.
One study investigated the phytochemistry, antioxidant, and in vitro anti-diabetic properties of the fresh leaf boiled extract (FBE) and dried leaf aqueous extracts (DAE). The antioxidant potential was evaluated through assays such as DPPH radical scavenging, ABTS radical scavenging, ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), peroxide-mediated antioxidant (PMA) activity, and metal chelating activity (MCA).
Evidence strength: All available evidence for antioxidant effects is from in vitro assays or animal (rodent) studies. No human clinical trials assessing antioxidant outcomes have been identified. Evidence is preliminary and cannot be extrapolated directly to human therapeutic use.
The same rat study described above (ETD, 500â1,500 mg/kg in Wistar rats, 14 days) provided data on lipid and liver parameters. Oral treatment with ETD increased plasma HDL concentrations while reducing plasma cholesterol, bilirubin, and ALT activity. Data was supported by histological report showing no pathologic abnormality. The presented data indicate T. daniellii leaf possesses antioxidant and hypolipidemic properties comparable with vitamin C.
Evidence strength: Preliminary animal data only. No human studies have been conducted. The dosages used in animal experiments (500â1,500 mg/kg) are very high and cannot be directly translated to human dosing.
A study was carried out to determine the phytochemical constituents and antibacterial activity of the leaf ethanol extract. The extract evaluated showed antibacterial activity against certain Gram-positive organisms (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative organisms (Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus pyogenes, Shigella dysenteriae, Campylobacter jejuni, and Salmonella typhi).
Evidence strength: In vitro microbiological data only. No controlled human studies have evaluated antimicrobial outcomes with T. daniellii preparations. Evidence is preliminary and limited to laboratory conditions.
Organs of the plant are used in folkloric medicine in treating ailments such as high blood sugar. In vitro evidence for antidiabetic activity has been reported. Strong correlations were observed between flavonoid content and antioxidant and antidiabetic activities. Additionally, thaumatin itself is not a carbohydrate and is thus considered an ideal sweetener for diabetics â a property established by its biochemical nature rather than clinical endpoint trials.
Evidence strength: No controlled human clinical trials have been identified that evaluate T. daniellii preparations for glycemic control. Available evidence is limited to in vitro enzyme-inhibition assays and the protein's intrinsically non-carbohydrate chemical nature.
Thaumatin-like proteins (TLPs) are expressed in a range of different plant species, fungi, and insects. These proteins are upregulated upon environmental stress and are assigned to the plant pathogenesis-related protein group 5 (PR-5). This biological role â as a defense-related protein in the plant itself â is well characterized but does not constitute evidence of a therapeutic role in humans.
The maximum permitted level (MPL) for E 957 ranges from a low of 5 mg/kg in "flavored fermented milk products" (e.g., yogurt) to a high of 400 mg/kg in "food supplements supplied in a syrup-type or chewable form" (EFSA 2015).
As a flavor modifier, safe consumption of thaumatin II has been anticipated at maximum levels comparable to those specified for currently available thaumatins â a maximum permitted level (MPL) for safe consumption of up to 1.1 mg/kg body weight per day for all age groups, per EFSA E957 (October 28, 2015).
One oral food challenge study for allergenicity involved 10 volunteers who were instructed to consume 100 mg of thaumatin or lactose (placebo) encapsulated in gelatin daily for 14 days each, following a double-blind crossover design.
One in vivo study examined the ethanolic extract of T. daniellii leaves in male Wistar rats at an oral dose of 500â1,500 mg/kg daily for 14 days. In the JECFA-reviewed subchronic toxicology study: groups of 10 male and 10 female CD rats were fed thaumatin at dietary levels of 1.0, 4.0, or 8.0% w/w. A control group received a basal diet supplemented with 8.0% casein w/w to compensate for the high protein intake. The EFSA ANS Panel and the EFSA FAF Panel recalculated the NOAEL from the same subchronic toxicity study in dogs, which resulted in values of 1,305 mg/kg bw per day in male dogs and 1,476 mg/kg bw per day in female dogs.
This sweet protein is approved within the European Union since 1984 (E957) under Annex II of Regulation (EC) No. 1333/2008 and possesses GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) approval in the United States (FEMA GRAS Number 3732). Thaumatin is listed in the Codex General Standard for Food Additives and permitted for general use in food. In Europe, it is approved as a Sweetener or as a Flavour Enhancer (EFSA E 957) for use in a number of different categories. Japan has approved thaumatin in the category of natural sweeteners. Australia and New Zealand list it under approved food additives.
In their 2021 review, EFSA's scientific experts assessed the totality of the available scientific evidence, including toxicological, intake, and epidemiological data, and concluded that thaumatin is safe for use in food and beverages and that there are no safety concerns at current exposure levels. The Panel concluded that there is no need for a numerical acceptable daily intake (ADI) for thaumatin (E 957) and, based on a margin of safety (MOS) of 5,417 (considered to be an underestimate) and derived using the highest 95th percentile (P95) exposure of 0.48 mg/kg bw per day in consumers only, there is no safety concern for thaumatin (E 957) at the regulatory maximum level exposure assessment scenario.
Following these evaluations, thaumatin (E 957) was considered acceptable for use and the acceptable daily intake (ADI) was established as 'not specified'. A more recent EFSA opinion on the safety of thaumatin for use as a feed additive concluded that there were no concerns for consumer safety, as "thaumatin is a highly digestible protein and no residues in edible tissues/products are expected."
One oral food challenge study involved 10 volunteers who consumed 100 mg of thaumatin or lactose (placebo) encapsulated in gelatin daily for 14 days each, in a double-blind crossover design. The observed responses included skin prick test results, serum IgE levels, and passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) assays. The clinical trial results indicated that none of the three tests yielded positive allergic reactions.
Thaumatin is the only sweet protein that has undergone a comprehensive allergenicity evaluation, ranging from in silico prediction to clinical assessment. Based on the methods applied, thaumatin shows potential as a respiratory allergen due to its cross-reactivity with certain pollens and fruits. This is related to the broader thaumatin-like protein (TLP) family; thaumatin-like proteins have been identified as minor allergens in fruits of the Rosaceae family, such as Mal d 2 from apple and Pru av 2 from cherry, in kiwifruit, banana, and bell pepper. Data from multicenter allergy research indicate that TLPs are significant allergens in plant food allergy and should be considered when diagnosing and treating pollen-food allergy.
Due to its proteinaceous nature, thaumatin is considered to be a potential respiratory sensitizer. Thaumatin is not irritant to the eyes and skin.
Thaumatin consists of a single polypeptide chain of 207 "normal" amino acid residues linked with 8 disulfide bridges giving a molecular weight of around 22,000. Thaumatin is completely digested by man and animal, which, together with its "normal" amino acid sequence, accounts for its acceptance by regulatory authorities around the world as a safe, natural substance.
In the 90-day rat study reviewed by JECFA, no deaths occurred in any group. The body-weight gains of male rats fed 4.0 or 8.0% thaumatin were lower (6% and 9%, respectively) than those of casein-fed controls. Body-weight gains of female rats were not affected by treatment. Food consumption of male and female rats receiving 4.0 or 8.0% thaumatin was 5â11% lower than that of casein-fed controls. These findings were interpreted in the context of protein metabolism, not toxicity.
The EFSA Panel recommended that the European Commission consider introducing into EU specifications for thaumatin (E 957) a new specification limit for the minimum combined content of thaumatin I and II proteins, a specification limit for yeast, mould counts, and Salmonella spp., and lowering the existing maximum limit for arsenic along with the inclusion of maximum limits for mercury and cadmium.
An acceptable daily intake (ADI) has not been specified for thaumatin by JECFA, reflecting confidence in its safety profile at current levels of use rather than a data gap.
Health conditions that Thaumatococcus daniellii may help support.
Body systems that Thaumatococcus daniellii may help support.
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