Zedoary

Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria)

1. Identity, Botanical Classification, and Physical Description

Zedoary (Curcuma zedoaria), also called white turmeric or temu putih, is a perennial herb and member of the genus Curcuma, family Zingiberaceae. Its accepted scientific name, Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe (syn. Amomum zedoaria Christm.), reflects a taxonomic revision proposed by William Roscoe in the early nineteenth century. Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. is commonly known as white turmeric and belongs to the Zingiberaceae family and genus Curcuma.

The plant is native to South Asia and Southeast Asia but is now naturalized in other places including the US state of Florida. The plant seems to stem from northeastern India, but is today widely cultivated in India, Southeast Asia, and China. C. zedoaria is cultivated in India, Sri Lanka, and China for its starch-rich tubers, known in the trade as zedoary root.

The fragrant plant bears yellow flowers with red and green bracts, and the underground stem section — a rhizome — is large and tuberous with numerous branches. It is known locally as temu putih or kunyit putih, and its leaf blades are 80 cm long, usually with a purple-brown flush running along the midrib on both surfaces of the leaf. The edible rhizome of zedoary has a white interior and a fragrance reminiscent of mango; however, its flavor is more similar to ginger, except with a very bitter aftertaste.

The plant is known by a wide range of vernacular names across different languages and traditions. These include Amomum zedoaria, Cedoaria, E-Zhu (Chinese), Kua, Sati, Shati, Temu Kuning, Temu Putih, and Zitwer (German), among others. In Ayurveda, it is categorized under Karpooradi Varga in the Bhavaprakasha Nighantu and is commonly known as Krachura in Sanskrit. The Curcuma zedoaria rhizome is termed Ezhu in Chinese.

Common Forms and Preparations

• Zedoary is a plant, and the underground stem (rhizome) is used to make medicine.
• The starch-rich tubers, known in the trade as zedoary root, are the source of "Shoti Starch," used as a substitute for arrowroot and barley.
• Zedoary is also used in the manufacture of liquors, stomach essences, and bitters, and for the production of perfumes and cosmetics.
• The essential oil produced from the dried rhizomes of Curcuma zedoaria is used in perfumery and soap fabrication, as well as an ingredient in bitter tonics.
• In Indonesia, it is ground to a powder and added to make white curry pastes, whereas in India it tends to be used fresh or in pickling. In Thai cuisine it is used raw and cut in thin strips in certain Thai salads.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Prehistoric and Ancient Origins

Zedoary was one of the ancient food plants of the Austronesian peoples. They spread it during prehistoric times to the Pacific Islands and Madagascar during the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000 BCE).

Ayurveda and South Asian Traditions

Curcuma zedoaria is a perennial herb found in tropical countries such as India, Japan, and Thailand. Various parts of this plant are used in Ayurveda and other folk medicines for the treatment of different ailments such as diarrhoea, cancer, flatulence, and dyspepsia. Later Ayurvedic works such as the Bhavaprakasha Nighantu (Kapuradi varga) and Dhanvantari Nighantu (Chandanadi varga) document its established role in traditional pharmacopeias.

Curcuma zedoaria is a constituent of a wide variety of Ayurvedic preparations like Dasamularishtam and Valiya Rasnadi Kashayam. The rhizome is used for curing stomach diseases, toothache, blood stagnation, leucoderma, tuberculosis, enlargement of the spleen, and for promoting menstruation in traditional medicine in Asia. It is traditionally used for the treatment of menstrual disorders, dyspepsia, and vomiting. Rural people use the rhizome for its rubefacient, carminative, expectorant, demulcent, diuretic, and stimulant properties, while the root is used in the treatment of flatulence, dyspepsia, cold, cough, and fever.

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

The Curcuma zedoaria rhizome is termed Ezhu in Chinese and is extensively used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat various ovarian and cervical cancers. Medicinal texts record that "Curcuma zedoaria can improve blood and qi, and cure the heart pain of a lady, combat the hypochondriac or abdominal mass and cold wind." Curcuma zedoaria is one of the anti-cancer Chinese herbal medicines discovered by medical workers in the early period during the Cultural Revolution. Curcumae Rhizoma has been widely prescribed by means of using alone or in combination with other herbs like Astragali Radix by practitioners of TCM for a long history in clinical cancer therapy.

Unani Medicine and the Islamic World

In medieval Persia, it was known as "jadwar" or "zedwar" and employed primarily for treating digestive issues such as indigestion and colic, reflecting its integration into Unani medicine.

Introduction to Europe

It was introduced to Europe by Arabs around the sixth century, but its use as a spice in the West today is extremely rare, having been replaced by ginger. The name zedoary comes from the Arabic and Farsi; in those languages, it is called jadwaar or zedwar. It was a popular spice at the time of its introduction to Europe and appears to have been in use through the medieval period. There are European recipes from the 16th century that include it as a spice. However, it has since fallen from favor and is now largely unknown in the West.

Southeast Asia

Different parts of C. zedoaria have been used for treating hematologic and circulation abnormalities, wounds, digestive problems, flatulence, skin diseases, and various infections. In Malaysia, Curcuma zedoaria, also known as Temu putih, is traditionally used in food preparations and treatment of various ailments including cancer.

3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds

C. zedoaria is a rich source of essential oils, starch, curcumin, arabin, gums, and related compounds. The major pharmacologically active constituents of Curcuma species are curcuminoids and essential oils. Curcuminoids — a mixture of three phenolic compounds namely curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and bis-demethoxycurcumin — have been proven to possess significant health benefits.

Essential Oil Fraction

C. zedoaria rhizome oil is mainly composed of sesquiterpenoids (80–85%) and monoterpenoids (15–20%). The reported major components of C. zedoaria rhizome essential oil include epicurzerene (19.0–46.6%), curzerene (10.4%), curdione (7.0–19.6%), curzerenone (22.3–31.6%), debromofiliforminol (31.5%), 1,8-cineole (18.5–40.8%), β-sesquiphellandrene (21.5%), p-cymene (18.4%), curcumenene (18.7%), and α-phellandrene (14.9%). Among the sesquiterpene components identified are germacrone-4,5-epoxide, germacrone, furanodienone, curzerenone, zederone, dehydrocurdione, curcumenol, isocurcumenol, curcumenone, curmanolide A, and curmanolide B.

Isolated Sesquiterpenoids

From the crude drug zedoary (the dried and ground rhizome of Curcuma zedoaria), a new cyclopropanosesquiterpene curcumenone and two new spirolactones, curcumanolide A and curcumanolide B, have been isolated, together with previously known related sesquiterpenes. Young shoots of C. zedoaria contain (+)-germacrone-4,5-epoxide, a key intermediate in the biogenesis of germacrone-type sesquiterpenoids.

The essential oil of Rhizoma curcumae is a mixture with around 20 typical constituents including curcumol, β-elemene, curdione, isocurcumenol, and other sesquiterpenes.

Curcumenol

Existing research has reported that curcumenol exerts different pharmacological effects in regard to a variety of diseases, including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, anti-bactericidal, anti-diabetic, and anti-cancer activity, and also ameliorates osteoporosis. Although there are scarce pharmacokinetics data concerning curcumenol, it has shown an inhibitory effect on CYP3A, and binding effects to HSA, which are two key factors in the pharmacokinetics process in vivo.

Curdione

Curdione isolated from this plant has been found to inhibit prostaglandin E2 production and cyclooxygenase-2 expression, both of which are implicated in inflammation and the carcinogenic process.

Antifungal Principle

The major antifungal principle of Curcuma zedoaria was identified in the 1970s as ethyl p-methoxycinnamate. Gupta S.K., Banerjee A.B., and Achari B. reported the isolation of ethyl p-methoxycinnamate as the major antifungal principle of Curcuma zedoaria (Lloydia, 1976;39(4):218–222).

Other Constituents

Curcuma zedoaria, also known as zedoary, contains various sesquiterpenoids and an active curcuminoid called demethoxycurcumin. It also contains curcumenol and sesquiterpene compounds, which possess anti-inflammatory, antitumor, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective effects. These compounds also aid in decreasing lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide production, thus reducing the level of proinflammatory cytokines.

4. Pharmacological Mechanisms of Action

The essential oil of Curcuma species possesses a wide variety of pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, anticancerous, antiproliferative, hypocholesterolemic, antidiabetic, antihepatotoxic, antidiarrheal, carminative, diuretic, antirheumatic, hypotensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, insecticidal, larvicidal, antivenomous, antithrombotic, antityrosinase, and cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) inhibitory activities, among others.

The established or proposed mechanisms for individual compounds include:

• COX-2 inhibition: Curdione inhibits prostaglandin E2 production and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression, both of which are implicated in inflammation and the carcinogenic process.
• NF-κB pathway: Sesquiterpene compounds decrease LPS-induced nitric oxide production, reducing the level of proinflammatory cytokines.
• Apoptosis induction: Curcumenone and curcumenol displayed strong antiproliferative activity (IC₅₀ = 8.3 ± 1.0 and 9.3 ± 0.3 µg/mL, respectively) and were found to induce apoptotic cell death in MCF-7 cells.
• Immunomodulation: The anti-tumor effect of Curcuma zedoaria and its active ingredients is mediated by enhanced immune function and regulated cytokine levels.
• CYP3A inhibition: Curcumenol has shown an inhibitory effect on CYP3A, and binding effects to human serum albumin (HSA), which are two key factors in the pharmacokinetics process in vivo.
• Hepatoprotection: Hepatoprotective sesquiterpenes were isolated from the aqueous acetone extract of the rhizome of C. zedoaria. Principal sesquiterpenes — furanodiene, germacrone, curdione, neocurdione, curcumenol, isocurcumenol, aerugidiol, zedoarondiol, curcumenone, and curcumin — were found to show potent protective effect on D-galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute liver injury in mice.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

Important note on evidence levels: The large majority of pharmacological research on Curcuma zedoaria consists of in vitro cell studies and in vivo animal experiments. Rigorous human clinical trials are largely absent from the published literature, and therefore evidence strength for most areas must currently be characterized as preliminary to moderate at best.

5.1 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Activity

Studies have been aimed at investigating the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity of the Curcuma zedoaria ethanolic rhizome extract using both in vitro and in vivo methods so as to justify its traditional use. In vivo antinociceptive activity was performed employing the hot plate method, acetic acid-induced writhing test, and formalin-induced writhing test on Swiss albino mice at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight. Anti-inflammatory activity test was done on Long Evans rats at two different doses (250 and 500 mg/kg body weight) by using carrageenan-induced paw edema test.

In the hot plate method, the extract increased the reaction time of heat sensation significantly to 61.99% and 78.22% at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg BW respectively. In the acetic acid-induced writhing test, the percent inhibition of writhing response by the extract was 48.28% and 54.02% at 250 and 500 mg/kg doses respectively (p < 0.001). The extract also significantly inhibited the licking response in both the early phase (64.49%, p < 0.01) and the late phase (62.37%, p < 0.01) in the formalin-induced writhing test.

A separate study evaluated C. zedoaria rhizome extract in a rat arthritis model. The study investigated the effects of petroleum ether, chloroform, and methanol root extracts of Curcuma zedoaria on behavioral and radiology aspects of Freund's Complete Adjuvant (FCA)-induced monoarthritis in the left ankle joint of rats. Traditionally, Curcuma zedoaria root has been used as an anti-inflammatory and antiarthritic drug.

Evidence strength: Animal and in vitro data only. No controlled human clinical trials identified for anti-inflammatory or analgesic endpoints.

5.2 Anticancer Activity

Curcuma zedoaria, belonging to the family Zingiberaceae, has been used in the traditional system of medicine in India and Southwest Asia in treating many human ailments and is found to possess many biological activities. The rationale of a key study was to isolate, identify, and characterize antitumor principles from the rhizomes, to assess cytotoxic effects on human and murine cancer cells, to determine apoptosis-inducing capacity, and to evaluate tumor-reducing properties in in vivo mice models.

Isocurcumenol was characterized as the active compound and was found to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells without inducing significant toxicity to normal cells. Fluorescent staining exhibited the morphological features of apoptosis in compound-treated cancer cells. In vivo tumor reduction studies revealed that a dose of 35.7 mg/kg body weight significantly reduced the ascitic tumor in DLA-challenged mice.

Curcumin and curcumenol are reported to inhibit the growth of S-180 sarcoma cells and mouse cervical U-14 cells. Curcumenone and curcumenol displayed strong antiproliferative activity (IC₅₀ = 8.3 ± 1.0 and 9.3 ± 0.3 µg/mL, respectively) and were found to induce apoptotic cell death in MCF-7 cells, providing a basis for the ethnomedical application of Curcuma zedoaria in the treatment of breast cancer.

Research found that Curcuma zedoaria polysaccharide (CZP) has a strong effect of enhancing the proliferation of lymphocytes and the phagocytic activity of macrophages. In vivo experimental studies confirmed that CZP could increase the spleen index of tumor-bearing mice, proving that Curcuma zedoaria and its active ingredient CZP can result in the increase of the proliferative ability of lymphocytes and the phagocytic activity of macrophages.

A review of the literature confirmed that Curcumae Rhizoma has tremendously therapeutic potential including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotection, immunomodulatory, and chemo-preventive properties. A total of 249 studies was identified through electronic databases from their inception up to September 2020.

Evidence strength: Predominantly in vitro (cell line) and in vivo (animal model) studies. The immunomodulatory and antiproliferative mechanisms are mechanistically plausible, but human clinical trial evidence is absent. Evidence is therefore preliminary.

5.3 Hepatoprotective Activity

Hepatoprotective sesquiterpenes were isolated from the aqueous acetone extract of the rhizome of C. zedoaria. Principal sesquiterpenes including furanodiene, germacrone, curdione, neocurdione, curcumenol, isocurcumenol, aerugidiol, zedoarondiol, curcumenone, and curcumin were found to show potent protective effect on D-galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide-induced acute liver injury in mice.

Pretreatment with curcuma oil significantly attenuated inflammation and oxidative damage caused by Concanavalin A. Treatment with curcuma oil was found to decrease the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Curcuma oil inhibits cell growth and induces cell death in Hepa1-6 cells.

Evidence strength: In vitro and animal studies only. No human trials identified specifically for C. zedoaria hepatoprotection.

5.4 Antimicrobial and Antifungal Activity

Research has identified the effect of various organic solvents including n-hexane, ethyl acetate, and methanol on the antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Curcuma zedoaria extract, testing against three Gram-positive bacteria — Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, and Streptococcus pneumoniae — and three Gram-negative bacteria — Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The rhizome is used for curing various stomach diseases and blood stagnation in traditional medicine in Asia. Anti-inflammatory activity, antifungal activity, antiulcer activity, antimicrobial effect, hepatoprotective activity, and antiamoebic effect of this plant rhizome have been reported.

Evidence strength: In vitro microbiological studies demonstrate activity against a range of organisms. No clinical antimicrobial trials identified.

5.5 Digestive and Gastroprotective Activity

Zedoary is used for colic, spasms, loss of appetite, and indigestion. Historically, zedoary rhizome was valued for its purported digestive, anti-inflammatory, and tonic effects. In Ayurvedic texts, it has been recommended for managing indigestion, flatulence, and menstrual discomfort, while TCM practitioners have used it to invigorate blood circulation and alleviate pain.

Preclinical research on the closely related species Curcuma purpurascens (within the same genus) demonstrated gastroprotective effects in ethanol-induced ulcer models in rats, with antiulcer activity comparable to omeprazole at tested doses; however, this is a distinct species from C. zedoaria. For C. zedoaria specifically, antiulcer activity has been reported in the literature. Traditionally, the plant has been used as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, diuretic, antiallergic, antiulcer, and antiasthmatic agent.

Evidence strength: Traditional use is well-documented across multiple cultures. Preclinical in vitro and animal data support plausible mechanisms for digestive benefits. Human clinical evidence is lacking.

5.6 Antilipidemic and Cardiovascular Effects

Published research categorizes Curcuma zedoaria as demonstrating antihyperlipidemic and antiplatelet and antithrombotic activities, among others. A study by Tariq et al. explored the phytopreventive antihypercholesterolemic and antilipidemic perspectives of zedoary herbal tea (Lipids Health Dis. 2016;15:39). Additionally, Kim et al. reported that extract of Curcuma zedoaria prevents atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice (Nutr Res Pract. 2021;15(3):319-328).

Evidence strength: In vivo animal data and one study with zedoary tea in humans; evidence is preliminary and insufficient to draw clinical conclusions.

5.7 Immunomodulatory Activity

Isocurcumenol isolated from C. zedoaria did not demonstrate any significant toxicity on normal chicken embryo lymphocytes and fibroblast cells. A study showed that five sesquiterpenoids — isoprocurcumenol, germacrone, curzerenone, curcumenol, and curcuzedoalide — from C. zedoaria possessed immunomodulatory properties.

Evidence strength: In vitro and in vivo data only. No human immunomodulatory trials identified.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Gastrointestinal system: Various parts of this plant are used in Ayurveda and other folk medicines for the treatment of different ailments such as diarrhoea, flatulence, and dyspepsia.
• Hepatic (liver) system: Curcumenol exhibits anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-virus, anti-oxidation, and hepatoprotective effects.
• Oncology / cellular proliferation: Zedoary rhizome extracts exhibit anticancer, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiallergic, antiparasitic against Entamoeba histolytica, antibacterial, and antifungal activities.
• Reproductive / gynecological: It is traditionally used for the treatment of menstrual disorders.
• Musculoskeletal / pain: The plant has been used as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antiarthritic agent.
• Immune system: The anti-tumor effect of Curcuma zedoaria and its active ingredients is mediated by enhanced immune function and regulated cytokine levels.
• Cardiovascular system: Antihyperlipidemic and antiplatelet and antithrombotic activities have been documented.
• Integumentary system (skin): The plant is used traditionally to treat inflammation, pain, and a variety of skin ailments including wounds.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

There is no established standardized clinical dosing regimen for zedoary in any regulatory pharmacopeia at present. The following dosages appear only in the cited experimental or traditional-use literature:

• In vivo antinociceptive activity was tested in Swiss albino mice at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight (ethanolic rhizome extract).
• Anti-inflammatory activity was tested in Long Evans rats at doses of 250 and 500 mg/kg body weight by carrageenan-induced paw edema test.
• In vivo tumor reduction studies used a dose of 35.7 mg/kg body weight (isocurcumenol) in DLA-challenged mice.
• In a hepatoprotective study, mice were pretreated with curcuma oil at 100 mg/kg for 3 days.
• In a repeated oral toxicity study, SD rats were exposed to doses of 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg of curcumol (a sesquiterpenoid constituent) for 28 days.

No human clinical trial has reported a standardized therapeutic dosage for Curcuma zedoaria specifically. Traditional methods for preparing zedoary involve washing it with lots of water to remove most of the protein and water-soluble nutrients. The rinsing is also supposed to remove a poison that is yet to be identified.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

Pregnancy

It is considered likely unsafe to take zedoary during pregnancy. There is concern that it might cause a miscarriage. It is also best to avoid zedoary if breastfeeding, since there is insufficient scientific information to know how it might affect a nursing infant. Zedoary is traditionally avoided in pregnancy due to possible uterine-stimulating effects.

Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet Interactions

Zedoary's mild antiplatelet effects may increase bleeding risk when combined with anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications. There is a theoretical increased risk of bleeding when combined with warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel, or similar drugs. This concern is consistent with findings in broader reviews of Chinese herbal medicines: most documented herb-drug interactions are attributable to pharmacodynamic interactions and include increased bleeding risks due to additive anticoagulant or antiplatelet effects.

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) Enzyme Interactions

Curcumenol has shown an inhibitory effect on CYP3A, which is a key factor in drug metabolism in vivo. This theoretical interaction suggests potential for pharmacokinetic interactions with drugs primarily metabolized by CYP3A enzymes, though this has not been studied clinically for zedoary specifically.

Gallbladder and Biliary Conditions

The herb's effect on bile flow could worsen symptoms in people with gallstones or biliary obstruction.

Antidiabetic Medications

Its influence on blood sugar may slightly enhance the effects of diabetes medications, potentially requiring dose adjustments.

General Tolerability

In a 28-day repeated dose study of curcumol (a sesquiterpenoid from Rhizoma curcumae), certain hematology and biochemistry parameters as well as organ weights were altered, but no related histopathological signs were observed, indicating these changes were not regarded as toxicologically relevant. These findings provide a basis for understanding the safety profile of curcumol, which may contribute to its further study as an investigational new drug.

Side effects are rare and usually mild, such as digestive upset or allergic reaction. The traditional preparation note — washing with large amounts of water to remove water-soluble fractions — indicates that some traditional communities recognized potential adverse effects associated with concentrated or unprocessed preparations.

Starch Toxicity (Historical Animal Data)

A study by Latif et al. investigated the toxicity of shoti (Indian arrowroot: Curcuma zedoaria) for rats and chicks (Br J Nutr. 1979;41:57–63). This work, conducted in animals, examined concerns related to the processed starch fraction and was not directly applicable to medicinal rhizome preparations.

References

• Lobo R, Prabhu KS, Shirwaikar A. Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. (white turmeric): a review of its chemical, pharmacological and ethnomedicinal properties. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2009;61(1):13–21. PubMed PMID: 19126292
• Hamdi OA et al. Cytotoxic Constituents from the Rhizomes of Curcuma zedoaria. The Scientific World Journal. 2014. PMC4121215
• Lakshmi S et al. Antitumour Effects of Isocurcumenol Isolated from Curcuma zedoaria Rhizomes on Human and Murine Cancer Cells. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2011. PMC4939266
• Dosoky NS, Setzer WN. Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Essential Oils of Curcuma Species. Nutrients. 2018;10(9):1196. PMC6164907
• Ghasemzadeh A et al. Immunomodulatory Effects and Mechanisms of Curcuma Species and Their Bioactive Compounds: A Review. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2021. PMC8120430
• Wang Y et al. The Extraction, Determination, and Bioactivity of Curcumenol: A Comprehensive Review. Molecules. 2024. PMC10856406
• Zheng C et al. Terpenoids from Curcumae Rhizoma: Their anticancer effects and clinical uses on combination and versus drug therapies. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 2021. ScienceDirect
• Islam MT et al. Evaluation of antinociceptive, in-vivo and in-vitro anti-inflammatory activity of ethanolic extract of Curcuma zedoaria rhizome. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2014. PMC4190444
• Yeh CH et al. Hepatic protection and anticancer activity of curcuma: A potential chemopreventive strategy against hepatocellular carcinoma. Int J Oncol. 2014. PMC3898719
• Gupta A, Mahajan S, Sharma R. Effect of Curcuma zedoaria Rosc root extracts on behavioral and radiology changes in arthritic rats. Ancient Science of Life. 2011. PMC3217705
• Zhang L et al. Safety Evaluation of Curcumol by a Repeated Dose 28-Day Oral Exposure Toxicity Study in Rats. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2023. PMC9965727
• Dewantoro D et al. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of the rhizome extract of Curcuma zedoaria extracted using some organic solvents. Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences. 2023. PMC10636071
• Tsai HH et al. A Review of Potential Harmful Interactions between Anticoagulant/Antiplatelet Agents and Chinese Herbal Medicines. PLOS ONE. 2013. PMC3650066
• Khatoon S et al. Analysis of Volatile Constituents in Curcuma Species, viz. C. aeruginosa, C. zedoaria, and C. longa, from Nepal. Chemistry & Biodiversity. 2022. PMC9332366
• Momin S et al. Curcuma zedoaria Rosc (Zingiberaceae): a review on its chemical, pharmacological and biological activities. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2021.
• Wikipedia. Curcuma zedoaria. (for botanical and culinary overview data)
• WebMD/Natural Medicines. Zedoary: Overview, Uses, Side Effects, Precautions, Interactions, Dosing.
• ScienceDirect Topics. Curcuma zedoaria. Based on Trease and Evans' Pharmacognosy (Sixteenth Edition), 2009.
• Journal of Cancer and Neoplasia Research. Research Progress of Anti-tumor Effects of Curcuma.