Buckthorn: A Comprehensive Reference Article
1. Identity and Botanical Classification
The common name "buckthorn" is applied to several distinct plant species that are unrelated in their pharmacological profiles and traditional uses. The primary botanical groupings covered in this article are:
- Common (European/Purging) Buckthorn โ Rhamnus cathartica L. (family Rhamnaceae)
- Alder (Glossy) Buckthorn โ Frangula alnus Mill., synonym Rhamnus frangula L. (family Rhamnaceae)
- Cascara (American) Buckthorn / Cascara Sagrada โ Frangula purshiana (DC.) A.Gray, synonym Rhamnus purshiana DC. (family Rhamnaceae)
- Sea Buckthorn โ Hippophae rhamnoides L. (family Elaeagnaceae)
The bark, stems and leaves of European buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), alder buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula), and California buckthorn (Rhamnus purshiana) contain anthraquinones that have potent cathartic properties, and these products should not be confused with sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides).
1.1 Rhamnus cathartica (Common / European / Purging Buckthorn)
Rhamnus cathartica, the European buckthorn, common buckthorn, purging buckthorn, or simply buckthorn, is a species of small tree in the flowering plant family Rhamnaceae, native to Europe, northwest Africa, and western Asia, from the central British Isles south to Morocco, and east to Kyrgyzstan. It was introduced to North America as an ornamental shrub in the early 19th century or perhaps before, and is now naturalized in the northern half of the continent, and is classified as an invasive plant in several US states and in Ontario and Quรฉbec, Canada.
It is a deciduous, dioecious shrub or small tree growing up to 10 metres (33 ft) tall, with grey-brown bark and often thorny branches. The name Rhamnus comes from the Latin word for buckthorn, while cathartica derives from the Greek word kathartikos, meaning "cleansing," referring to the plant's medicinal use in traditional remedies, particularly its laxative properties.
1.2 Frangula alnus (Alder / Glossy Buckthorn)
Alder buckthorn, scientifically known as Frangula alnus Mill. or Rhamnus frangula, is a spontaneous shrub belonging to the Rhamnaceae family. The name "buckthorn" probably derives from the fragility of its branches, which are particularly flexible and easy to break. This small tree, native to Europe and Central Asia, has also managed to conquer territories in North Africa and was later naturalized in the eastern United States.
1.3 Frangula purshiana (Cascara / American Buckthorn)
Cascara is typically an extract from the dried, aged bark of Rhamnus purshiana, a species of buckthorn tree or shrub native to North America. Cascara sagrada is Spanish for "sacred bark" and was used for centuries by Native Americans as a laxative. Cascara became accepted in western medical practice in the 19th century and is still used in over-the-counter laxative preparations, often in combination with other herbals such as aloe vera. At 6 to 10 m high, the cascara buckthorn is a strong tree native to the Pacific coast of North America, from southern Canada to central California.
1.4 Hippophae rhamnoides (Sea Buckthorn)
Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides), also known as sandthorn, sallowthorn, or seaberry, is a species of flowering plant in the family Elaeagnaceae, native to cold-temperate regions of Eurasia. It is a spiny deciduous shrub, and its fruit has culinary uses, while its extracts, including its oil, are used in the cosmetics industry and within traditional medicine. It is the most widespread of the species in the genus, with the ranges of its eight subspecies extending from the Atlantic coasts of Europe across to northwestern Mongolia, northwestern China, and Northern Pakistan. In western Europe, it is largely confined to sea coasts where salt spray off the sea prevents other larger plants from outcompeting it. In central Asia, it is more widespread in dry semi-desert sites.
The term Hippophae is derived from the Latin words hippo and phaos, referring respectively to a horse and "shine." It has been used as a drug, dietary supplement, fuel, and fence since ancient times, and the leaves of sea buckthorn were allegedly fed to horses to aid weight gain and coat appearance.
2. Common Forms and Preparations
2.1 Rhamnus / Frangula / Cascara Species (Cathartic Buckthorns)
Preparations include chopped or coarsely pulverized buckthorn bark or cascara bark as tea, as well as buckthorn bark dry extracts standardized on anthranoids (glucofrangulin A) in solid dosage forms. Typical reported doses of cascara are 1 g of the bark, 2 to 6 mL as a fluid extract, or 100 to 300 mg of dried bark extract. The preparation is noted to be a gentle, tonifying laxative in low doses and more stimulating in higher doses, and is often taken at bedtime.
2.2 Sea Buckthorn
Sea buckthorn is a potential dietary supplement that can be consumed as oil, juice, powder, or capsule, and can also be used as an ingredient in various food products, such as jams, pies, drinks, and cosmetics. Every part of the plant โ fruits, leaves, stems, branches, roots, and thorns โ has been traditionally used in medicine, nutritional supplement, soil and moisture conservation, and the establishment of wildlife habitats.
3. Traditional and Historical Uses
3.1 Cathartic Buckthorn Species (Rhamnus/Frangula)
Alder buckthorn has been used as a cathartic laxative in northern and central Europe, including England, for centuries. Alder buckthorn provides a milder action than purging buckthorn. The bark used to be boiled in ale by country people for jaundice, and it was also used as a tonic for the intestines and for relieving haemorrhoids.
Buckthorn berries (Rhamni baccae) were historically regarded as powerfully cathartic; 20 of the recent berries were described as causing brisk, watery purging, with nausea, dryness of the throat, thirst, and tormina.
The berries of the European counterpart (Rhamnus frangula) were described in the London Pharmacopoeia of 1650. The dried bark of cascara has been used for centuries as a laxative, first by Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and then by European/U.S. colonizers.
A pamphlet of the 1740s published by John Juxton explained that the "Syrup of the Berries of Buckthorn" were "much in use and prepared at many Gentlemens Houses, and good Housekeepers, and likewise sold in the Apothecaries Shops."
3.2 Sea Buckthorn
Sea buckthorn is one of the oldest land plants, dating from the Ice Age. The first references to its therapeutic effects appear in the 4th century BC. According to historical sources, Hippophae was part of Alexander the Great's army diet. It had been observed that both patients and injured horses were treated using the leaves and fruits of this plant. References to its usage are also found in both Tibetan tradition and Chinese medicine. Other sources report that during the 13th century, Genghis Khan had used it in his campaigns.
In Tibetan medicinal texts such as "the RGyudBzi" compiled during the Tang Dynasty (900 AD), as well as Greek literature and Chinese and Tibetan medicinal systems, the culinary and medical uses of Hippophae have been linked to ancient times.
Its traditional therapeutic applications primarily address bronchopulmonary ailments, functional gastrointestinal disorders, thermal injuries, and various hematological abnormalities. Hippophae rhamnoides also holds a significant position in broader Eurasian ethnopharmacological practices.
Used in ancient Greece as fodder for horses to promote weight gain and a shiny coat, the generic Latin name "Hippophae" literally translates to "shiny horse." Sea buckthorn has been used for centuries in both Europe and Asia as food and for its pharmaceutical properties. Anecdotal reports indicate it was used in ancient times to lower fever, reduce inflammation, counteract toxicity and abscesses, clean the lungs, treat colds and coughs, and treat tumours and growths, especially of the stomach and oesophagus.
Widespread traditional use has been recorded in the Himalayas. Sea buckthorn has also been used medicinally in Russia, China, India, and Tibet for centuries.
4. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
4.1 Cathartic Buckthorn Species: Anthraquinones
The bark of Rhamnus purshiana (cascara sagrada) contains laxative anthranoid derivatives, which occur in the form of free anthraquinones, anthrones, dianthrones, and/or O- and C-glycosides derived from these substances.
Only the dried bark of the trunk or branches of the cascara sagrada plant (Rhamnus purshiana) is used, since the fresh bark contains free anthrone. The free anthrone can cause severe vomiting and is therefore destroyed by treatment of the bark with heat and aeration or by aging it for at least a year. The major active constituents of cascara sagrada are the anthraquinone glycosides known as cascarosides A, B, C, and D. Cascarosides A and B in particular exert their laxative effect by stimulation of colonic peristalsis, and the laxative action is mild and occurs after about 8โ12 hours.
Buckthorn bark from the alder buckthorn contains anthranoids (hydroxyanthracene derivatives, "anthraquinones"), mainly glucofrangulin and frangulin. They are formed during storage or drying in a hot air stream from the oxidation of the corresponding anthraquinone glycosides. The drug of the alder buckthorn plant is the cortex, from which anthraquinone active ingredients such as mainly glucofrangulin A are extracted. In the cortex, small quantities of aglycones such as emodin and emodin-9-anthrone are also present. Frangula belongs to the family of stimulant laxatives, and emodin-9-anthrone is the main metabolite produced by bacteria at the intestinal level.
Historically used in traditional medicine systems including Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine, the active constituents responsible for alder buckthorn's medicinal properties include anthraquinones, flavonoids, tannins, and lignans.
4.2 Sea Buckthorn: A Multicomponent Phytochemical Profile
Sea buckthorn contains nearly 200 nutrients and bioactive components. These include vitamins, carotenoids, polyphenols, fatty acids, and phytosterols.
Different parts of the plant contain phenols; carotenoids (lycopene, carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin); flavonoids (isorhamnetin, quercetin, glycosides, and kaempferol); tocopherols; sterols; polyunsaturated fatty acids; minerals; vitamins; omega-3, -6, -9, and rare omega-7 fatty acids; and dietary fibers.
Sea buckthorn fruit and seed oil contains high levels of beneficial unsaturated fatty acids (omega-3, -6, -7), natural antioxidants, vitamins (E, K), carotenoids, and phytosterols. The main fatty acids in sea buckthorn berries are palmitic, palmitoleic, and oleic acids. Palmitoleic acid is a component of skin used in burn treatment and wound healing.
Fourteen sterol compounds have been detected in sea buckthorn pulp lipids, including 4-desmethyl sterols (cholestanol derivatives, including ฮฒ-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, and ฮ5-avenasterol), 4ฮฑ-monomethyl sterols (e.g., citrostadienol), and 4,4-dimethylsterols (e.g., 24-methylenecycloartanol).
Sea buckthorn berries do not contain ascorbate oxidase, the enzyme responsible for the degradation of ascorbic acid, and therefore sea buckthorn products and even dried fruits still contain large amounts of vitamin C.
Key polyphenolic flavonoids such as isorhamnetin and quercetin are believed to be mainly responsible for its health benefits (against cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome, obesity, etc.) through properties including anti-cancer, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities.
5. Mechanisms of Action
5.1 Cathartic Buckthorn (Laxative Mechanism)
The active laxative components in cascara are anthraquinone derivatives and their glucosides, referred to as cascarosides. They appear to act locally as an irritant to the colon, promoting peristalsis and stool evacuation. Anthraquinones also inhibit reabsorption of electrolytes and water from the colon.
Anthraquinone glycosides have a cathartic action, inducing the large intestine to increase its muscular contraction (peristalsis) and increasing water movement from the cells of the colon into the feces, resulting in strong, soft bowel movements. It takes six to ten hours for alder buckthorn to act after taking it by mouth.
The bark contains anthraquinones, which are inactive in the gastrointestinal tract until they reach the colon, where they are degraded by bacterial enzymes; within about six to eight hours this causes vigorous peristalsis.
The chemicals primarily responsible for the laxative action in cascara are the hydroxyanthracene glycosides (particularly cascarosides A, B, C, and D), and emodin. These act as stimulant laxatives, with the hydroxyanthracene glycosides stimulating peristalsis, and emodin exciting smooth muscle cells in the large intestine.
5.2 Sea Buckthorn Mechanisms
The mechanism of action of the active components of sea buckthorn in cardiovascular diseases encompasses anti-inflammatory, lipid oxidation regulation, antioxidant, vascular function modulation, anti-platelet aggregation, autophagy, intestinal microorganism regulation, and cell apoptosis reduction.
Recent in vivo studies suggest that sea buckthorn extracts enhance the expression of endogenous antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), which protect against tissue damage in models of lung inflammation, liver injury, and sepsis. Although these findings are biologically plausible and consistent across several preclinical studies, comparable clinical confirmation in humans remains limited.
Sea buckthorn fruit and seed oil contains high levels of beneficial unsaturated fatty acids (omega-3, -6, -7), natural antioxidants, vitamins (E, K), carotenoids, and phytosterols. All of these chemicals combine to protect cell membranes and enhance cell regeneration.
In a dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced atopic dermatitis-like mouse model, topical application of sea buckthorn oil ameliorated dermatitis severity, reduced epidermal thickness, and suppressed mast cell infiltration by inhibiting NF-ฮบB, JAK2/STAT1, and p38-MAPK signaling, thereby reducing the production of Th2 chemokines TARC and MDC.
6. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
6.1 Constipation and Laxative Use (Cathartic Buckthorn Species)
Regulatory and Monograph Status: The European Medicines Agency's Committee on Herbal Medicinal Products (HMPC) has accepted the internal use of buckthorn bark and cascara bark as "well-established use" for the short-term treatment of occasional constipation. ESCOP similarly endorses both buckthorn and cascara bark for the short-term treatment of occasional constipation.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued a final rule stating that the stimulant laxative ingredients aloe and cascara sagrada (including casanthranol, cascara fluidextract aromatic, cascara sagrada bark, cascara sagrada extract, and cascara sagrada fluidextract) in over-the-counter (OTC) drug products are not generally recognized as safe and effective or are misbranded. This final rule is part of FDA's ongoing OTC drug product review. This drug has consequently been discontinued as an OTC drug product in the United States, and clinical studies of cascara have found it is no longer considered safe or effective for this use under the OTC drug framework.
Clinical Evidence: Medicinal uses of cascara are clinically supported by data for short-term treatment of occasional constipation. Attention has since shifted to cascara's constituent emodin and its possible therapeutic applications in the treatment of various conditions, based on animal and in vitro data.
Evidence Strength: The laxative efficacy of anthraquinone-containing buckthorn species is well-documented and recognized by European regulatory bodies for short-term use. However, evidence quality for long-term or other indications is insufficient, and the FDA's 2002 OTC classification change reflects an overall limited evidence base by contemporary standards.
6.2 Sea Buckthorn โ Cardiovascular Health
In clinical trials, sea buckthorn was proven to be effective in managing lipid metabolism, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels in patients.
A study in obese children assessed the effects of sea buckthorn pulp oil treatment (800 mg/day for 60 days) on inflammation, systemic redox status, and endothelial function. The treatment was shown to prevent atherosclerosis by strongly reducing triglycerides, cholesterol, and blood pressure, and weakly reducing oxidative stress, inflammation, and insulin resistance.
Another study showed that dietary supplementation with 0.75 mL of sea buckthorn seed oil per day effectively reduces dyslipidemia, cardiovascular risk factors, and hypertension in humans, which may be due to the presence of ฯ-3, -6, and -9 fatty acids in the oil. Improved antioxidant parameters may also be attributed to the high levels of ฮฒ-carotene and vitamin E.
One study showed that sea buckthorn can reduce the concentration of C-reactive protein (CRP), thereby reducing the risk of inflammation and cardiovascular diseases.
In humans, supplementation with sea buckthorn oil (SBo) extracted with supercritical carbon dioxide reduced platelet aggregation, had beneficial effects on atopic dermatitis, increased the serum concentration of HDL cholesterol, and reduced the concentration of vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1).
Evidence Strength: These traditional uses are supported primarily by ethnopharmacological evidence, with modern validation emerging from experimental studies and a limited number of clinical trials. Emerging research suggests potential benefits of sea buckthorn intake on digestive, cardiovascular, skin, and metabolic health, highlighting its relevance as a potential functional food. Most human trials are small, and larger, well-controlled studies are needed.
6.3 Sea Buckthorn โ Dry Eye Disease
Researchers aimed to find out whether oral sea buckthorn oil, containing (n-3) and (n-6) fatty acids and antioxidants, affects dry eye. In this double-blind, randomized, parallel trial, women and men (aged 20โ75 years) experiencing dry eye symptoms consumed 2 g of sea buckthorn or placebo oil daily for 3 months from fall to winter. One hundred participants were recruited and 86 completed the study. Clinical dry eye tests and symptom follow-ups were performed. Compared with the placebo group, the increase in osmolarity was significantly less in the sea buckthorn group when all participants were included (intention to treat, P = 0.04) and when only participants consuming the study products for at least 80% of the intervention days were included (per protocol, P = 0.02).
Evidence Strength: This double-blind, randomized controlled trial provides moderately strong preliminary evidence for the benefit of sea buckthorn oil on dry eye osmolarity, but further replication in larger trials is needed.
6.4 Sea Buckthorn โ Skin and Dermatological Use
Sea buckthorn has been reported to have a wide range of dermatological effects. Clinical trials have demonstrated anti-psoriasis effects. One group treated 10 patients diagnosed with mild to moderate psoriasis with topical sea buckthorn fruit extract. When compared with placebo-treated patients, the Psoriasis Area Severity Index (PASI) score and Dermatology Life Quality Index (DLQI) scores in the treatment group were improved at both the fourth and eighth weeks of treatment.
Sea buckthorn has a therapeutic role in dermatology due to the high levels of saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids and other biological compounds that exert their effects. Determining the specific bioactive compounds and their mechanisms of action, however, requires further research.
Wang et al., in a controlled study in 151 patients with burns, used Hippophae rhamnoides oil or petroleum jelly (control) on their wounds. They reported that the oil reduced wound swelling and relieved pain.
Topical application of sea buckthorn oil has been reported for skin therapy including sun, heat, chemical, and radiation burns, eczema, and poorly healing wounds.
Evidence Strength: Clinical evidence in dermatology is preliminary, largely based on small case series or single-center trials with limited sample sizes. Preclinical (animal and in vitro) data is more robust. Larger randomized trials are needed.
6.5 Sea Buckthorn โ Gastrointestinal Health
Two studies found that sea buckthorn emulsion may promote gastrointestinal motility and relieve symptoms of dyspepsia. Additionally, a study found that sea buckthorn could reduce the clinical symptoms of chronic gastritis, increase appetite, repair the stomach lining, reduce and eliminate H. pylori, and increase motilin levels.
Sea buckthorn oil has been reported to have preventive and curative effects against different types of gastric ulcers, chronic cervicitis, and atopic dermatitis.
Evidence Strength: Gastrointestinal evidence primarily derives from small clinical studies conducted largely in China. Findings are promising but are not replicated in large, multi-center, placebo-controlled trials. Animal model evidence is supportive but does not substitute for human clinical data.
6.6 Sea Buckthorn โ Metabolic Syndrome and Liver
Sea buckthorn extracts have various therapeutic effects related to metabolic syndrome, including preventing diabetes and related complications, reducing blood pressure, improving abnormal lipid and glucose metabolism, inhibiting glucosidase activity, and protecting the cardiovascular system. This plant and its extracts could contribute to novel approaches to metabolic syndrome treatment, with the primary aim of preventing the development of diabetes, hypertension, and other cardiovascular diseases.
In a study conducted in people with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), results suggested that sea buckthorn capsules can significantly decrease the serum levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), LDL-C, hyaluronic acid, collagen type IV, and CT liver/spleen ratio, which may be further developed as a promising therapy for the treatment of NAFLD.
Another human study investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with phenol-rich sea buckthorn powder. An analysis of plasma with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) fingerprinting after meals showed that the treatment delays postprandial lipid changes and inhibits increases of 3-hydroxy butanoic acid and N-acetyl glycoproteins compared to untreated controls.
Evidence Strength: Evidence for metabolic syndrome and NAFLD is early-phase, primarily from small clinical pilot studies. The heterogeneity of preparations and dosages across studies makes it difficult to draw strong conclusions at this time.
6.7 Sea Buckthorn โ Kidney Disease
In a pilot study on 28 people with kidney disease (idiopathic nephrotic syndrome), an herbal preparation with sea buckthorn (as an add-on to conventional therapy) improved symptoms of swelling, lack of appetite, and low urination, as well as reducing inflammatory cytokines in the blood and proteins in the urine after 3 months. This suggests that sea buckthorn may have therapeutic potential for kidney disease patients. However, more clinical trials are needed to confirm the safety and efficacy of sea buckthorn for renal protection, as well as to determine the optimal dosage and formulation.
Evidence Strength: This is a very small, single pilot study. Evidence is insufficient to support claims of renal benefit without further rigorous trials.
7. Body Systems and Health Areas
Based on the scientific and traditional literature, buckthorn species are associated with the following body systems:
- Digestive / Gastrointestinal System: All cathartic buckthorn species are associated primarily with the colon (stimulant laxative activity). Sea buckthorn is associated with gastric protection, motility, and H. pylori suppression.
- Cardiovascular System: Sea buckthorn, via its flavonoids, omega fatty acids, and phytosterols, is associated with lipid regulation, anti-platelet aggregation, blood pressure modulation, and antioxidant endothelial protection.
- Skin / Integumentary System: Sea buckthorn oil and extracts are associated with wound healing, burn treatment, eczema, psoriasis, and dry skin.
- Ophthalmic System: Sea buckthorn oil has been investigated specifically for dry eye disease.
- Metabolic / Endocrine System: Sea buckthorn has been investigated in metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, and blood glucose modulation.
- Hepatic System: Sea buckthorn shows hepatoprotective activity in NAFLD preliminary studies; conversely, high-dose/long-term use of cathartic buckthorn species has been associated with hepatotoxicity.
- Immune System: Sea buckthorn's rich vitamin C, carotenoid, and flavonoid content is associated with immune support in traditional use and nutritional literature.
- Respiratory System: Traditional Tibetan and Chinese medicine uses of sea buckthorn include lung ailments and respiratory disease.
8. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies
8.1 Cathartic Buckthorn / Cascara Species
- Capsules providing 20 to 30 mg of anthraquinone glycosides (calculated as glucofrangulin A) per day can be used for alder buckthorn; however, the smallest amount necessary to maintain regular bowel movement is recommended.
- Typical doses of cascara are 1 g of the bark, 2 to 6 mL as a fluid extract, or 100 to 300 mg of dried bark extract.
8.2 Sea Buckthorn
- In the double-blind dry eye trial, participants consumed 2 g of sea buckthorn or placebo oil daily for 3 months.
- In the obese children metabolic study, sea buckthorn pulp oil was given at 800 mg/day for 60 days.
- Another study used dietary supplementation with 0.75 mL of sea buckthorn seed oil per day to reduce dyslipidemia, cardiovascular risk factors, and hypertension.
9. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions
9.1 Cathartic Buckthorn Species
The anthranoids produce harmless discoloration of the urine. Depending on intrinsic activity and dose, they can also produce abdominal discomfort and cramps, nausea, violent purgation, and dehydration. They can be distributed into breast milk, but not always in sufficient amounts to affect the suckling infant. Long-term use can result in electrolyte disturbances and in atony and dilatation of the colon.
Use of buckthorn (Rhamnus catartica, Rhamnus frangula, Frangula alnus) for more than ten days consecutively may cause a loss of electrolytes, especially the mineral potassium. Loss of potassium may increase the toxicity of digitalis-like medications with potentially fatal consequences. Because corticosteroids also cause potassium loss, buckthorn or alder buckthorn should be used with caution if corticosteroids are being taken.
The fresh bark contains free anthrone and must be stored for one year or artificially aged by heat and aeration. The use of illegally processed cascara sagrada bark (e.g., fresh bark) will cause severe vomiting and possibly spasms.
Cathartic buckthorn products should not be confused with sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides). Maternal intake of cathartic buckthorn products might cause loose stools in breastfed infants, and their use should be avoided during lactation.
Use for more than 10 days consecutively can lead to dependence on laxatives for a bowel movement to occur.
Hepatotoxicity (Cascara/Cathartic Species): Cascara is a popular herbal medication and over-the-counter therapy for constipation. Cascara is generally safe and well tolerated, but can cause adverse events including clinically apparent liver injury when used in high doses for longer than recommended periods. Multiple comprehensive reviews of herbal-associated hepatotoxicity have listed cascara as a potential hepatotoxin.
9.2 Regulatory Status (Cascara)
The FDA issued a final rule stating that cascara sagrada (including casanthranol, cascara fluidextract aromatic, cascara sagrada bark, cascara sagrada extract, and cascara sagrada fluidextract) in OTC drug products are not generally recognized as safe and effective or are misbranded. This drug has been discontinued as an OTC drug in the United States.
9.3 Sea Buckthorn Safety
Although sea buckthorn fruit extracts are under preliminary research for their pharmacological effects, there is no high-quality clinical evidence for the ability of Hippophae products to lower the risk of human diseases. As of 2022, no sea buckthorn products are approved as prescription drugs by any national regulatory agency.
More clinical trials are needed to confirm the safety and efficacy of sea buckthorn for human health.
Scientific research confirms the effectiveness of anthraquinone active ingredients in cathartic buckthorn but also emphasizes the importance of proper preparation of the bark. The presence of anthranols in fresh bark, potentially irritating to the intestines, makes the drying and aging process essential, during which these compounds oxidize into therapeutically active and well-tolerated anthraquinones.
References
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