Lactobacillus salivarius

Lactobacillus salivarius

1. Identity, Nomenclature, and Taxonomy

Current and Historical Names

Ligilactobacillus salivarius, formerly named Lactobacillus salivarius, has been referred to by its historical species name for almost 70 years, having been initially described by Rogosa et al. in 1953 as an obligatory homofermentative lactic acid bacterium. In the years following a major 2020 taxonomic revision, strains previously assigned to Lactobacillus salivarius were reclassified and moved into a new genus called Ligilactobacillus, which consists of 16 species; the name Ligilactobacillus implies a host-adapted lifestyle, specifically referencing the vertebrate host association of this organism.

The etymology of the genus name Ligilactobacillus combines the Latin infinitive ligare (to tie or unite), alluding to the bacterium's close association with vertebrate hosts, with lactobacillus (from Latin lac, lactis for milk, and bacillus for small rod), reflecting its lactic acid-producing, rod-shaped morphology; the specific epithet salivarius derives from the Latin adjective meaning "salivary," indicating the source of its original isolation from human saliva.

The genus Lactobacillus was split into 25 different genera in April 2020; some product labels may still list this species as Lactobacillus salivarius rather than its current valid name, Ligilactobacillus salivarius. Throughout the scientific and supplement literature, the older name Lactobacillus salivarius remains in widespread use, particularly in clinical research predating the reclassification, and both names appear interchangeably in this article.

Full Taxonomic Classification

The organism belongs to phylum Bacillota (Firmicutes), class Bacilli, order Lactobacillales, family Lactobacillaceae, and sits within the genus Lactobacillus (now Ligilactobacillus), in the L. salivarius phylogenetic group among the obligately homofermentative lactobacilli.

Microbiological Characteristics

L. salivarius is a non-motile, non-sporulating, oxidase- and catalase-negative, rod-shaped microorganism with a general cell size of 0.6–1.9 μm × 1.5–5 μm. It is obligately homofermentative, meaning hexoses are fermented almost exclusively to lactic acid by the Embden-Meyerhof pathway and pentoses or gluconate are not fermented; positive fermentation results are obtained for fructose, galactose, glucose (acid without gas), lactose, maltose, mannitol, mannose, sorbitol, sucrose, and trehalose.

The type strain of L. salivarius is designated ATCC 11741 (also known as DSM 20555 or CCUG 31453), which was isolated from human saliva and serves as the reference for the species' phenotypic and genotypic characteristics.

Natural Habitat and Sources

Ligilactobacillus salivarius is a type of lactic acid bacterium commonly found in the oropharyngeal-gastrointestinal tract (OGT), where it has gained significant attention due to its probiotic and functional properties and various health-promoting roles; L. salivarius strains exhibit strong resistance and adhesion in the OGT along with outstanding antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. L. salivarius is common in the human mucosa, from the mouth to the rectum. L. salivarius is a promising probiotic candidate frequently isolated from human, porcine, and avian gastrointestinal tracts.

2. Preparation Forms and Commercial Presentations

The species may be administered to animals (including humans) in an orally ingestible form in conventional preparations such as capsules, microcapsules, tablets, granules, powder, troches, pills, suppositories, suspensions, and syrups.

Three oral formulations of L. salivarius have been studied: powder, capsule, and sustained-release tablet. In one in vitro model using the TNO gastrointestinal (TIM-1) system, no or low numbers of bacteria were respectively released from the capsule and tablet in the simulated stomach, confirming their gastro-resistance.

These bacteria are sometimes added to fermented foods like yogurt and are also found in dietary supplements; the organism has been investigated for conditions including diarrhea from antibiotics, asthma, eczema, diabetes, and dental caries, although as of the available literature, firm scientific evidence for most of these uses remains limited.

3. Historical and Traditional Context

Unlike plant-derived botanical ingredients, L. salivarius does not have a documented tradition of intentional use as a medicinal entity in pre-modern pharmacopoeias. Its history is instead linked to the broader, ancient human practice of consuming fermented foods. Some Ligilactobacillus salivarius strains have been reported as having high probiotic potential, including exopolysaccharide-producing strains; the practice of consuming fermented foods has prevailed across civilizations and strata of societies over centuries because there is an obvious tangible benefit to consumers of such products.

Lactic acid fermentation is the simplest and safest way of preserving food and has probably always been used by humans. While L. salivarius as a defined probiotic species was not characterised before the 20th century, the organism occurs naturally in spontaneously fermented dairy and vegetable foods. Its deliberate identification and commercial use as a dietary supplement is a development of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, following the formal description of the species in 1953 and the subsequent development of probiotic science.

4. Key Constituents, Genomic Architecture, and Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Bacteriocins

Strains of L. salivarius, a species associated with the gastrointestinal tract, are regarded as promising probiotic candidates and have a number of associated bacteriocins documented to date, including multiple class IIb bacteriocins (salivaricin T, salivaricin P, and ABP-118) and the class IId bacteriocin bactofencin A, which show activity against medically important pathogens.

Bacteriocins are a heterogeneous family of small, ribosomally synthesized peptides with antimicrobial activity produced by many bacterial species; these antimicrobials can have a broad or narrow spectrum of activity and have considerable potential as agents in food preservation and biomedical applications; bacteriocin production is considered an important trait of gut-derived bacteria, influencing microbial populations within the intestinal tract.

Bacteriocin production is regarded as a desirable probiotic trait that aids in colonization and persistence in the gastrointestinal tract. A key in vivo demonstration of bacteriocin functionality was provided by studies with strain UCC118: a stable mutant of L. salivarius UCC118 that is unable to produce the Abp118 bacteriocin also failed to protect mice against infection with two strains of Listeria monocytogenes, confirming that bacteriocin production is the primary mediator of protection against this organism.

4.2 Genomic Architecture: The Megaplasmid

A highly distinctive and scientifically significant feature of L. salivarius is its genome structure. The 2.13-Mb genome of the well-characterised strain UCC118 was shown by sequencing to comprise a 1.83 Mb chromosome, a 242-kb megaplasmid (pMP118), and two smaller plasmids; megaplasmids had not previously been characterised in lactic acid bacteria or intestinal lactobacilli.

Contingency amino acid metabolism genes and carbohydrate utilization genes, including two genes for completion of the pentose phosphate pathway, were megaplasmid-encoded; the megaplasmid also harbored genes for the Abp118 bacteriocin, a bile salt hydrolase, a presumptive conjugation locus, and other genes potentially relevant for probiotic properties.

All 33 strains of L. salivarius isolated from humans and animals were shown to harbor a megaplasmid, which hybridized with replication origin probes of pMP118; linear megaplasmids that did not hybridize with the pMP118 repA probe were also found in some strains of L. salivarius, demonstrating for the first time that a lactic acid bacterium can possess multiple megaplasmids.

The megaplasmid pMP118 carries a number of contingency genes, which work in conjunction with chromosomally encoded genes and pathways to broaden the metabolic flexibility of strain UCC118, increasing its potential viability in the competitive environment of the gastrointestinal tract; annotation and functional studies have indicated that pMP118 contributes significantly to probiotic properties, encoding a bile salt hydrolase gene and a potent broad-spectrum bacteriocin.

4.3 Bile Salt Hydrolase and Gastrointestinal Survival

Commensal lactobacilli frequently produce bile salt hydrolase (Bsh) enzymes; twenty-six L. salivarius strains from different sources all harbored a bsh1 allele on their respective megaplasmids. Despite very low activity of the UCC118 Bsh1 enzyme, a mutant lacking this protein had significantly lower bile resistance, both in vitro and during intestinal transit in mice, though the overall bile resistance phenotype was independent of the bsh1 allele type.

4.4 Lactic Acid and Other Antimicrobial Metabolites

The ability of L. salivarius to inhibit competing microflora is attributed to the production of lactic acid, H₂O₂, and bacteriocins, as well as the capacity to colonize the gut for an extended period, leading to the exclusion of unfavorable microflora.

4.5 Immunomodulation

Studies examining L. salivarius UCC118 on gene expression responses in the Caco-2 cell line showed that exposure to UCC118 led to the induction of several human genes (TNFAIP3, NFKBIA, and BIRC3) that are negative regulators of inflammatory signaling pathways, as well as induction of chemokines (CCL20, CXCL-1, and CXCL-2) with antimicrobial functions.

In animal models of intestinal inflammation, UCC118 treatment was associated with an increase in levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10 (IL-10); using bone marrow-derived macrophages, treatment with the UCC118 strain upregulated the expression of M2 macrophage markers and IL-10 secretion; furthermore, UCC118 was observed to be highly effective at promoting recovery from DSS-colitis with a concomitant shift in the gut microbiota profile favouring the abundance of health-associated bacteria.

4.6 Adhesion Properties

Stress resistance genes, active stressor removal genes, and adhesion-related genes have been identified in L. salivarius, with studied strains showing a high survival rate in the presence of bile salts and under acidic conditions, as well as significant auto-aggregation capacity and hydrophobicity.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Oral Health and Periodontal Disease

Clinical Evidence (Moderate): One of the most studied areas for L. salivarius specifically is oral and periodontal health. A notable randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (RCT) assessed the impact of strain WB21 on periodontal bacteria. In this trial, sixty-six healthy volunteers without severe periodontitis were randomized into two groups to receive lactobacilli or placebo for 8 weeks; the test group (n=34) received 2.01 × 10⁹ CFU/day of Lactobacillus salivarius WB21 and xylitol in tablets; the control group (n=32) received placebo with xylitol; supra/subgingival plaque samples were collected at baseline and after 4 and 8 weeks, with bacterial amounts in plaque samples analysed by quantitative real-time PCR.

L. salivarius WB21 has been shown to inhibit the quantity of oral periodontopathic bacteria, including Porphyromonas gingivalis, P. intermedia, Tannerella forsythensis, and Fusobacterium nucleatum. The overall evidence base for L. salivarius in periodontal applications remains preliminary; findings from individual trials are promising but larger, independently replicated RCTs are needed before definitive conclusions can be drawn.

5.2 Gastrointestinal Health: Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

Clinical Evidence (Mixed/Preliminary): One landmark RCT examined L. salivarius in IBS. Seventy-seven subjects with IBS were randomized to receive either Lactobacillus salivarius UCC4331 or Bifidobacterium infantis 35624, each in a dose of 1 × 10¹⁰ live bacterial cells in a malted milk drink, or the malted milk drink alone as placebo for 8 weeks. In that trial, B. infantis 35624 outperformed both placebo and L. salivarius UCC4331 in reducing IBS symptom composite scores, suggesting that not all probiotic species perform equivalently in this indication.

A later randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial examined a combination product including L. salivarius for unconstipated IBS. This study aimed to investigate whether a mixture of lactobacilli probiotics could improve abdominal symptoms in patients with unconstipated IBS; fifty Vietnamese patients with unconstipated IBS were randomly assigned to either the probiotics or placebo group; during the intervention, participants took the probiotic supplement or placebo capsule once a day; patients recorded their subject global assessment weekly and were assessed with the visual analogue scale during the 4-week study period. The combination of L. paracasei, L. salivarius, and L. plantarum showed potential utility in IBS without adverse events. However, because L. salivarius was used as part of a multi-strain preparation, its independent contribution cannot be isolated from this trial's results.

5.3 Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)

Evidence (Preclinical/Animal Model Only — No Robust Human RCT Data): A study investigating the probiotic potential of Lactobacillus salivarius UCC118 in a mouse model of colitis found that DSS-induced colitis was coupled with pre-treatment or post-treatment with UCC118 by daily oral gavage; in the pre-treatment model of colitis, UCC118 reduced the severity of the disease in the early stages. Improvement in disease severity was coupled with an upregulation of tissue IL-10 levels and increased expression of macrophage M2 markers. These findings are from an animal model and cannot be directly extrapolated to human IBD. Robust clinical trial evidence in human IBD for L. salivarius specifically is currently lacking.

5.4 Atopic Eczema / Atopic Dermatitis

Clinical Evidence (Negative/Null for Eczema Prevention; Some Signal for Sensitisation): A randomised controlled trial on atopic eczema prevention enrolled women from 36 weeks of gestation and their infants to age 6 months, who received daily either a probiotic mixture (including Lactobacillus salivarius CUL61, Lactobacillus paracasei CUL08, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis CUL34 and Bifidobacterium bifidum CUL20; total of 10¹⁰ organisms/day) or matching placebo. The cumulative frequency of diagnosed eczema at 2 years was similar in the probiotic (73/214; 34.1%) and placebo arms (72/222; 32.4%); however, among the secondary outcomes, the cumulative frequency of skin prick sensitivity at 2 years was reduced in the probiotic group (18/171; 10.5%) compared with the placebo arm (32/173; 18.5%). The primary outcome of eczema diagnosis was not significantly changed by the multi-strain probiotic mixture; the signal for reduced allergen sensitisation is secondary and hypothesis-generating. Because this trial used a multi-strain product, the contribution of L. salivarius CUL61 specifically cannot be determined independently.

5.5 Mastitis During Lactation

Clinical Evidence (Positive; Single Large RCT): In a multicountry, multicenter, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 328 women were assigned to the probiotic or the placebo group; the intervention with Ligilactobacillus salivarius PS2 started from the 35th week of pregnancy until week 12 post-partum; the primary outcome was the incidence rate of mastitis, defined as the presence of at least two of the following symptoms: breast pain, breast erythema, breast engorgement not relieved by breastfeeding, and temperature above 38°C. The probability of being free of mastitis during the study was higher in the probiotic than in the placebo group (p = 0.022) with 9 mastitis cases (6%) versus 20 mastitis cases (14%), respectively; the hazard ratio of the incidence of mastitis between both study groups was 0.41 (95% CI 0.190–0.915; p = 0.029), indicating that women in the probiotic group were 58% less likely to experience mastitis.

An earlier gene-expression study of L. salivarius PS2 for mastitis treatment, based on previous clinical trials, used a dosage of three capsules per day for a 21-day intervention period, each capsule containing approximately 50 mg of freeze-dried powdered L. salivarius PS2 (~9.5 log₁₀ CFU).

5.6 Infection Prevention and Anti-Infective Properties

Evidence (Largely Preclinical): An in vivo demonstration of the anti-infective properties of the Abp118-producing strain L. salivarius UCC118 has established the in vivo functionality of bacteriocins; purified OR7, a class IIa bacteriocin produced by the chicken intestinal isolate L. salivarius NRRL B-30514, has also been successfully employed to reduce Campylobacter jejuni colonization in poultry. These findings are from animal models and provide mechanistic support, but human clinical trial evidence for infection prevention remains limited.

5.7 Rheumatoid Arthritis

Evidence (Complex and Contradictory; Preliminary Only): The relationship between L. salivarius and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is nuanced. Research demonstrated that Lactobacillus salivarius was more abundant in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, an inflammatory autoimmune disease wherein the gut microbiota is altered, than in healthy individuals. An increased population of Lactobacillus salivarius was recorded in the gut, teeth, and saliva of RA patients, and L. salivarius and some other Lactobacillus spp. could be associated with RA pathogenesis.

Conversely, a probiotic mixture including L. salivarius BL2201 was used in a clinical trial context: 100 patients with newly diagnosed RA were assigned to receive either probiotics containing Lactobacillus casei BLn2401, Lactobacillus salivarius BL2201, and Bifidobacterium breve BL3406 plus conventional disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (cDMARDs), or cDMARDs alone; clinical outcomes including disease activity score, inflammatory markers (CRP, ESR), pain (VAS), functional disability (HAQ), and quality of life questionnaire were assessed at baseline and follow-up. Because L. salivarius was part of a multi-strain preparation in this trial, its independent contribution to any outcomes cannot be determined. The overall evidence in RA is preliminary and contradictory, and the species' role in this area requires further investigation.

5.8 Anti-infective and Lung Defense (Animal Data Only)

Widespread use of antibiotics in the intensive care unit is a potential cause of the emergence of hospital-acquired pneumonia; one study determined whether Lactobacillus salivarius feeding could reverse antibiotic-induced lung defense impairment in a ventilator model. This research was conducted in animals and results cannot be extrapolated to clinical practice at this stage.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with L. salivarius

• Oral cavity and dental health: Inhibition of periodontopathic bacteria including Porphyromonas gingivalis, P. intermedia, Tannerella forsythensis, and Fusobacterium nucleatum by strain WB21.
• Gastrointestinal tract: The organism is commonly found in the oropharyngeal-gastrointestinal tract and has gained attention due to its probiotic and functional properties.
• Immune system: Exposure to UCC118 led to induction of genes such as TNFAIP3, NFKBIA, and BIRC3 that are negative regulators of inflammatory signaling pathways in human intestinal cell models.
• Mammary gland / breast tissue: Evidence from a large RCT supports a role for strain PS2 in reducing mastitis incidence during lactation.
• Microbiome composition: UCC118 was highly effective at promoting recovery from experimental colitis with a concomitant shift in the gut microbiota profile favouring the abundance of health-associated bacteria.
• Atopic/immune sensitisation: Some preliminary evidence from a multi-strain RCT of reduced allergen skin-prick sensitivity in infants.
• Joints/musculoskeletal (preliminary and controversial): Association data and animal model evidence exist but no definitive clinical benefit has been established for L. salivarius specifically in RA.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Clinical Studies

Dosages reported in the literature vary considerably by strain, formulation, and therapeutic target. The following are sourced directly from peer-reviewed studies:

• Periodontal health (WB21): 2.01 × 10⁹ CFU/day of Lactobacillus salivarius WB21 combined with xylitol in tablets, administered for 8 weeks in a double-blind RCT.
• Irritable bowel syndrome (UCC4331): 1 × 10¹⁰ live bacterial cells per day in a malted milk drink for 8 weeks.
• Mastitis treatment (PS2): Three capsules per day each containing approximately 50 mg freeze-dried powdered L. salivarius PS2 (~9.5 log₁₀ CFU) for 21 days.
• Mastitis prevention (PS2 in RCT): 328 women were studied with probiotic intervention from the 35th week of pregnancy until week 12 post-partum, using daily supplementation of L. salivarius PS2.
• Mastitis (patent-described dosing range): A dose of 10⁸ to 10¹⁰ CFU per dose, administered more than once per day, specifically three times per day at 10⁸ to 10¹⁰ CFU per dose, has been described in patent documentation for mastitis treatment.
• Eczema prevention (multi-strain product including CUL61): A total dose of 10¹⁰ organisms/day from a four-strain mixture was administered to pregnant women and their infants for a combined prenatal and postnatal intervention.

No universally agreed standardized dose exists for general supplementation. Reported doses in the above studies ranged from approximately 10⁸ to 10¹⁰ CFU/day depending on the strain, formulation, and indication.

8. Safety Considerations

8.1 General Safety Profile

When taken by mouth, L. salivarius is possibly safe when used for up to 16 weeks and appears to be well-tolerated. During pregnancy, L. salivarius is possibly safe when taken by mouth; it has been used safely until delivery, starting at approximately 30 weeks of pregnancy.

8.2 Risks in Vulnerable Populations

The WHO/FAO working group recommended that new probiotic strains be evaluated for safety by testing for antibiotic resistance, toxin production and hemolytic potential, assessing metabolic activities such as d-lactate production and bile salt deconjugation, conducting human studies to evaluate side effects, post-market surveillance of commercial consumers, and, ideally, studying their use in immunocompromised animals to determine infectivity of the probiotic organism in such hosts.

Theoretical risks described in case reports, clinical trial results, and experimental models for probiotic organisms in general include systemic infections, deleterious metabolic activities, excessive immune stimulation in susceptible individuals, gene transfer, and gastrointestinal side effects. Safety concerns persist especially in patients who are immunocompromised or have impaired gastrointestinal tract integrity. Although probiotics are generally considered safe, their safety in immunocompromised patients is uncertain.

8.3 Antibiotic Resistance and Safety Assessment

Safety assessment of L. salivarius strains includes identification of antibiotic resistance and virulence genes, and confirmation as safe through results of antibiotic resistance, hemolytic, and acute oral toxicology tests; genome mining has identified gene clusters of antibacterial compounds and broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity in studied strains.

Whole-genome sequencing is now considered part of standard safety evaluation of probiotic strains in accordance with FAO/WHO guidelines: the breast milk isolate Lactobacillus salivarius LPM01 (DSM 22105) has been studied for desirable traits for improving health status in drug-immunocompromised people, and whole-genome analysis was carried out as part of a safety assessment study in accordance with FAO/WHO guidelines.

8.4 Relationship to Rheumatoid Arthritis Microbiome

An area of particular caution concerns the association between L. salivarius abundance and inflammatory disease. Lactobacillus salivarius was demonstrated to be more abundant in patients with rheumatoid arthritis than in healthy individuals; however, the effect of this abundance on RA is unclear. An increased population of Lactobacillus salivarius in the gut, teeth, and saliva of RA patients has been reported, and L. salivarius and some other Lactobacillus spp. could be associated with RA pathogenesis. This observed association does not establish causation, and the mechanistic significance for human supplementation remains unresolved.

8.5 Vaginal Application

When applied to the vagina, there is insufficient reliable information to determine whether L. salivarius is safe or what the side effects might be.

References

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