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Celery (Apium graveolens L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical and Chemical Names, Source, and Forms

1.1 Botanical Identity

Celery belongs to the family Apiaceae and is scientifically designated Apium graveolens Linn., commonly known as celery. It has been used in the Unani system of medicine as an anti-inflammatory, uricosuric, and diuretic agent, and to treat rheumatism, among other conditions. It is a native plant from Macaronesia to Western Himalaya, and from Europe to Northern Africa, now ubiquitous around the world. It is a deciduous, erect, herbaceous biennial herb with a shallow tap root system, a branched, hollow, and succulent stem, pinnate leaves with ovate leaflets bearing small white flowers, and a schizocarp fruit; the seeds are very small, dark brown, ovoid to globose, and are used as a flavoring agent.

Three botanical varieties of A. graveolens are widely recognized in cultivation and research: var. dulce (stalk celery), var. rapaceum (celeriac or celery root), and var. secalinum (leaf or cutting celery). The parts of the plant used include seeds, leaves, and essential oils.

1.2 Common Preparations and Dosage Forms

The stalks can be eaten raw, used as an ingredient in salads, or as a flavouring in soups, stews, and pot roasts. Celery seeds, which have a strong, aromatic flavor, are used as a spice or processed into essential oil, standardized extracts, capsules, and dried herb preparations. As a dietary supplement, celery is commercially available in forms including: encapsulated seed powder, standardized seed extracts (often standardized to 3-n-butylphthalide content), seed essential oil, juice preparations made from fresh stalks, and fluid extracts of the root. Late in the 19th century, various celery tonics and elixirs appeared commercially, generally containing the juice of crushed celery seeds and often with a large amount of alcohol.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Traditions

The common celery of today is a cultivated descendant of wild celery, highly valued by ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Chinese both as a food flavoring and as a medicine, with records showing its cultivation for at least 3,000 years, notably in pharaonic Egypt, as well as China in the 5th century BCE.

In ancient Egypt, celery leaves were used in funeral garlands and were found in the tomb of King Tutankhamun. Egyptians considered celery sacred, using it as an offering to the dead and as a medicinal plant; some sources suggest it was used to treat rheumatism and in rituals.

The Greeks wove celery into garlands for victors at the Nemean Games. In Greek culture, celery was associated with death and the afterlife, but it was also valued for its medicinal properties. In about 450 BC, the Greeks used celery to make a type of wine called selinites, which was given as an award at early athletic games, much like laurel leaves or olive branches.

From the Hippocratics to Dioscorides and Pliny, to Walhafrid Strabo and Hildegard von Bingen, to ibn Sina and ibn al Baytar and later, celery is a classic of the literature on the materia medica of the ancient Mediterranean and Central-northern Europe. The physician and pharmacologist Dioscorides, writing in the 1st century CE, documented various medicinal uses of garden celery, including for eye inflammation and skin conditions.

Romans believed celery could ward off intoxication and recommended it for hangovers, indigestion, and as an aphrodisiac. Pliny the Elder described celery's healing qualities, and the plant appeared in Roman recipes. The whole plant was used to ease heartburn, and decoctions were made for a range of ailments.

2.2 Medieval and Early Modern European Use

In the Capitulary of Charlemagne, compiled around 800 CE, apium appears among the folk medicinal herbs and vegetables the Frankish emperor desired to see grown. At a later point in medieval Europe, celery displaced alexanders as a common medicinal plant.

In the Middle Ages, celery was used mainly as medicine. Herbalists recommended it to calm nerves, promote sleep, and aid digestion. It was even thought to control hysteria and serve as a general tonic.

By the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, advances in cultivation made celery milder and more enjoyable to eat. This shift allowed celery to move from the apothecary's shelf to the dining table.

2.3 Traditional Asian Medicine

The plant is also used in traditional Chinese medicine. The seeds have been used in traditional systems of medicine in the Middle East since ancient times. The use of celery seed oil developed further with the processed food industry, as the oil is widely used as a food flavorer in the USA and Europe. In the Unani system of medicine, Apium graveolens has been used as an anti-inflammatory, uricosuric, and diuretic agent, and to treat rheumatism, among other purposes.

2.4 Summary of Traditional Preparations and Indications

• Celery has traditionally been used as a diuretic, for gland stimulation, bile, kidney stones, to regulate the intestines, to increase appetite, and as a prophylaxis for nervous agitation.
• Celery seed has traditionally been used as a diuretic for bladder and kidney complaints, as well as for arthritis and rheumatism.
• Celery juice from the whole, fresh plant has been taken for joint and urinary tract inflammations, as well as for rheumatoid arthritis, cystitis, or urethritis, weak conditions, and nervous exhaustion. The root is used as a diuretic, for urinary stones, and as a bitter digestive remedy and liver stimulant.
• Celery is commonly used to treat digestive issues such as poor digestion, bloating, and indigestion.
• Celery is employed in traditional medicine to treat skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

3.1 Major Phytochemical Classes

Celery (Apium graveolens) contains carbohydrates, flavonoids, alkaloids, steroids, glycosides, phenols, furocoumarins, volatile oils, sesquiterpene alcohols, fatty acids, and a wide range of trace elements. Among the phytochemical compounds of celery, one can mention carbohydrates, phenols such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and steroids. The presence of compounds such as limonene, selinene, furocoumarin glycosides, flavonoids, and vitamins A and C are among the reasons celery is the most widely used plant in traditional medicine.

3.2 Phthalides: 3-n-Butylphthalide (3nB)

Celery seeds are rich in phthalides, including sedanolide and 3-n-butylphthalide, as well as monoterpenes such as limonene. DL-3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) is a synthesized compound based on an extract from seeds of celery Apium graveolens Linn., and has been used as a therapeutic drug, showing multiple neuroprotective and regenerative activities. The scent of the oil is attributed to the presence of sedanonic anhydride and sedanolide in the seed oil.

3.3 Flavonoids: Apigenin, Luteolin, Apiin, and Others

Celery, because of compounds such as caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, apigenin, luteolin, tannin, saponin, and kaempferol, has powerful antioxidant characteristics. Apigenin (4′,5,7-trihydroxyflavone) is an important component of the human diet, with celery, celeriac, and parsley being among the most important sources. A flavonoid separated and purified from celery leaf through ethanol extraction was identified as apiin (apigenin glucoside) by LC/ESI-MS.

3.4 Furocoumarins (Psoralens)

The phytochemical constituents include bergapten, flavonoids, glycosides, furanocoumarins, furocoumarin, limonene, psoralen, xanthotoxin, and selinene. These furocoumarins, particularly psoralens, are present in higher concentrations in the seeds and root compared to the stalks, and carry safety implications discussed below.

3.5 Polyacetylenes and Other Compounds

The primary chemical constituents found in different parts of the plant include falcarindiol, falcarinol, polyacetylene 8-O-methylfalcarindiol, and panaxidol, as well as a pectic polysaccharide (apiuman) containing D-galacturonic acid, D-galactose, L-arabinose, and L-rhamnose. Apinin, apigenin, caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, ocimene, rutaretin, bergapten, and isopimpinellin have been reported in celery seeds. Additional compounds include seslin, osthenol, gravebioside A and B, and isoimperatorin. Seed oil is composed of stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, petroselinic acid, D-limonene, terpineol, selinene, and santolol.

Celery stalks and leaves contain higher levels of phenolic acids such as chlorogenic acid and ferulic acid, furanocoumarins, and flavonoids such as apigenin and quercetin. This compositional variation between plant parts has direct relevance to which pharmacological effects are associated with different preparations.

3.6 Macronutrient and Micronutrient Constituents

Studies have revealed that celery is abundant in vitamins, minerals, phthalides, and flavonoids like apigenin and luteolin, which have strong anti-inflammatory and antitumor properties. Additionally, celery contains silica, chlorophyll, and high fiber content and comprises approximately 95% water.

4. Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Cardiovascular and Antihypertensive Mechanisms

Apigenin, a bioactive compound in celery, exerts vasodilatory and antiproliferative effects on vascular smooth muscle cells, contributing to blood pressure reduction. Celery seed extract has been shown to regulate blood pressure through multiple mechanisms, including calcium channel blockade, β-adrenergic receptor inhibition, and diuretic activity. Based on animal and human studies, celery seems to elicit blood pressure regulation mainly by the vasodilatory, diuretic, and calcium channel-blocking properties.

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Apigenin has preclinically demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and antimicrobial properties. The compound exerts its effects through the modulation of various signaling pathways, enzyme activities, gene expression, and cellular mechanisms.

4.3 Antioxidant Mechanisms

Celery's flavonoids act as potent scavengers of reactive oxygen species, thereby reducing lipid peroxidation.

4.4 Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition (Uric Acid/Gout Mechanism)

Celery seeds have been used as a dietary supplement to manage hyperuricemia and diminish gout recurrence. Xanthine oxidase (XOD), the critical enzyme responsible for uric acid production, represents the most promising target for anti-hyperuricemia in clinical practice. Luteolin in celery seed inhibits the enzyme xanthine oxidase that produces uric acid in the body. Chemical profiling using affinity ultrafiltration–liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry identified thirty-two compounds from celery seed extracts, including fourteen flavonoids and six phenylpeptides, as contributors to xanthine oxidase inhibitory effects.

4.5 Anticancer Mechanisms (Preclinical)

Apigenin modulates various signaling pathways such as PI3K/AKT, MAPK/ERK, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, and Wnt/β-catenin pathways. These pathways help in the regulation of cell apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and inhibition of cell migration and invasion. Apigenin's capacity to inhibit tumor growth, induce apoptosis, and suppress angiogenesis and metastasis points to its significant anti-cancer potential in preclinical models.

4.6 Neuroprotective Mechanisms

NBP (3-n-butylphthalide) is known for its neuroprotective properties, including antioxidative, antiapoptotic, and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as its ability to enhance cerebral blood flow. NBP not only enhances the expression of angiogenic growth factors but also actively promotes angiogenesis in models of stroke. The activated Akt kinase pathway can prevent the death of nerve cells and exhibit neuroprotective effects in the brain after stroke.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Hypertension (Blood Pressure)

The available evidence reveals that celery enhances blood pressure parameters. Clinical trials have clarified that celery possesses its effect through many bioactive compounds, specifically 3-n-butylphthalide and apigenin.

Key clinical trial (randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover): The antihypertensive effects of celery seed extract were studied in a randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over clinical trial. Fifty-two patients were divided into two groups, and four celery seed extract capsules (totalling 1.34 g per day) or four placebo capsules per day were administered over a 4-week clinical trial. In the celery group, systolic blood pressure changed from 141.2 ± 5.91 to 130.0 ± 4.38 mmHg (p < .001), while diastolic blood pressure changed from 92.2 ± 5.74 to 84.2 ± 4.87 mmHg (p < .001). Mean arterial blood pressure decreased from 108.5 ± 5.76 to 99.5 ± 4.66 mmHg (p < .001). No significant changes were observed in the placebo group, and no significant side effects were reported in the celery group compared to placebo.

Additional human study (uncontrolled): A human study evaluated the efficacy of a standardized extract of celery seed supplying 85% 3nB in 30 patients with mild to moderate hypertension. The dosage was 150 mg per day. The results showed a statistically significant decrease in both systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) compared to baseline. The change at week six for the SBP was 8.2 mmHg and for the DBP was 8.5 mmHg. No side effects were reported. This study lacked a placebo control and therefore represents weaker evidence.

Meta-analysis (2025): Subgroup analysis from a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials revealed that celery seeds or celery preparations exceeding 1,000 mg/day were more effective than preparations using other parts of the plant. No significant difference in adverse events between celery and placebo was found.

Evidence strength: Moderate, supported by at least one well-designed RCT and a 2025 meta-analysis. Studies are generally small and short-term; larger independent replications are needed.

5.2 Gout and Hyperuricemia

Celery seeds have demonstrated potential for the prevention and treatment of gout, primarily due to their capacity to inhibit xanthine oxidase activity and reduce serum uric acid concentrations. In a specific study, hyperuricemia was induced in mice using potassium oxonate and yeast extract, and treatment with aqueous extract of celery seeds (CSAE) and oil extract of celery seeds (CSOL) resulted in significant reductions in serum uric acid and XO levels.

In rats with acute gouty arthritis induced by intra-articular injection of monosodium urate crystals, CSAE and CSOL treatment alleviated swelling of the ankle joints and reduced inflammatory cell infiltration. CSAE and CSOL also reduced the levels of interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α and increased the levels of IL-10. The results suggested that celery seed extracts may have anti-gout properties, partially through anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects.

As of available research reviews, no clinical trials in humans have been published specifically to support this application for gout. Evidence is thus limited to animal and in vitro models, and the mechanism (xanthine oxidase inhibition by luteolin and other flavonoids) is biologically plausible but not confirmed in human clinical trials.

Evidence strength: Preliminary — animal and in vitro studies only; no human clinical trials for gout as a primary endpoint confirmed in the literature.

5.3 Neurological Disorders and Stroke (3-n-Butylphthalide)

As a neuroprotective drug for the treatment of ischemic stroke, 3-n-butylphthalide, a celery seed extract, has been approved by the State Food and Drug Administration of China as a clinical therapeutic drug for ischemic stroke patients. L-3-n-butylphthalide possesses significant efficacy in the treatment of acute ischemic stroke.

In a randomized double-blind trial, a total of 573 patients receiving NBP within 48 hours of the onset of ischemic stroke and during a 90-day treatment period (followed by aspirin) had significantly improved outcomes measured by the modified Rankin Scale. The control for comparison was a 14-day infusion of ozagrel followed by aspirin. The chronic treatment of NBP (both intravenous and oral) was judged to be safe and superior to the treatment of sodium ozagrel and aspirin for acute ischemic stroke patients.

In one trial, dl-3-n-butylphthalide 400 mg orally daily (given as one 200 mg capsule twice daily) as part of a 90-day treatment regimen was used to improve outcomes in patients with acute ischemic stroke.

A. graveolens and its bioactive phytoconstituent, 3-n-butylphthalide (NBP), have demonstrated effects on neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke-related neurological complications, depression, diabetes-related neurological complications, and epilepsy. A scoping review of 26 articles on this topic consisted of 19 in vivo studies, 1 published clinical trial, 4 in vitro studies, and 2 studies comprising both in vivo and in vitro methods.

Four studies conducted between 2010 and 2016 focused on Alzheimer's disease using L-3-n-butylphthalide at an oral dosage of 15 mg/kg for a treatment duration of three months or more. The findings showed that L-NBP improved synaptic functions; reduced Aβ plaque load, oxidative stress, and microglia activation; and inhibited abnormal tau hyperphosphorylation. These studies were conducted in animal models.

Evidence strength: Clinically meaningful for ischemic stroke (NBP is an approved drug in China based on RCT data), but the approved product is a synthesized pharmaceutical compound derived from celery. Evidence for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease applications remains preclinical. The neurological evidence relates to isolated/synthesized NBP rather than whole celery preparations.

5.4 Blood Glucose (Glycemic Control)

3-n-butylphthalide, a compound present in celery seeds, has been found to improve insulin resistance and lower blood glucose levels in animal models. A randomized trial conducted by Yusni et al. in prediabetic patients indicated that celery may reduce blood glucose levels.

Celery is commonly used as a diet intervention for hypertension, hyperglycemia, and hyperlipidemia. However, its precise therapeutic efficacy remains uncertain.

Evidence strength: Preliminary. At least one RCT in prediabetic patients exists, and animal data support the mechanism, but the overall clinical evidence base is limited and requires further confirmation.

5.5 Lipid Profile

Celery has been demonstrated to effectively lower triglyceride and cholesterol levels in rat models. Both aqueous and ethanol extracts of celery seeds have shown lipid-lowering bioactivity in hamster models. Flavonoids found in celery are able to reduce plasma levels of low-density lipoproteins, inhibit platelet aggregation, and reduce cell proliferation in preclinical settings.

Evidence strength: Weak for humans — evidence is primarily from animal studies; clinical human data are limited.

5.6 Antioxidant Activity

Celery is a plant from the Apiaceae family, and phenolic and antioxidant compounds of this plant have been studied by several scientists. Out of 980 collected articles published in the period 1997–2015, a systematic review identified 9 studies that met inclusion criteria; celery, because of compounds such as caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, apigenin, luteolin, tannin, saponin, and kaempferol, has powerful antioxidant characteristics to remove free radicals.

Evidence strength: Well-established in vitro and animal models; the clinical relevance of celery's antioxidant effects in humans has not been definitively established through large controlled trials.

5.7 Anticancer Activity (Preclinical)

Experimental studies have demonstrated that apigenin has tumor suppression efficiency against different types of cancer cell lines in both in vivo and in vitro conditions. Apigenin has attracted considerable attention as a dietary supplement due to its low toxicity, non-mutagenic properties, and remarkable therapeutic efficacy in various diseases in preclinical studies. Evidence from a large number of preclinical studies suggests that apigenin has promising effects in the prevention and treatment of a variety of liver diseases, including multifactorial liver injury, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, liver fibrosis, and liver cancer.

A clinical trial registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03139227) assessed whether eating a celery-based diet may help in prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases including cancer. The primary objective was to determine the feasibility of apigenin oral supplementation using a specially formulated celery-banana bread. This trial was at feasibility stage and does not establish clinical anticancer efficacy.

Evidence strength: Preclinical only. No published human clinical trials have established that celery or apigenin supplementation prevents or treats cancer in humans.

5.8 Anti-inflammatory and Antiarthritic Activity

Previous pharmacological studies showed that Apium graveolens exerted gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, cytotoxic, antimicrobial, antihelminthic, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, central nervous, and many other pharmacological effects. Animal research has demonstrated anti-inflammatory activity. Celery seed extract has anti-inflammatory effects as established in preclinical models.

Evidence strength: Preclinical evidence is consistent; controlled human trials specifically targeting inflammatory outcomes are lacking.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Celery

• Cardiovascular system: Blood pressure regulation, vasodilation, antihypertensive effects via phthalides and apigenin.
• Musculoskeletal system: Traditional use to treat arthritic conditions, gout, and urinary infections.
• Renal and urinary system: Diuretic effects; seeds used mainly as a diuretic and reportedly to help clear uric acid, especially in cases of gout where uric acid crystals collect in the joints.
• Gastrointestinal system: Traditional use to treat digestive issues such as poor digestion, bloating, and indigestion.
• Neurological system: NBP has demonstrated effects on neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke-related neurological complications, depression, diabetes-related neurological complications, and epilepsy in preclinical and limited clinical research.
• Endocrine/Metabolic system: Glycemic control and lipid regulation in animal models and preliminary clinical evidence.
• Hepatic system: Preclinical evidence suggests apigenin has promising effects in the prevention and treatment of a variety of liver diseases, including non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, liver fibrosis, and liver cancer.
• Immune and inflammatory system: Anti-inflammatory effects across multiple preclinical models.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

Dosages vary substantially by preparation and indication. The following are dosages as reported in identified studies and sources:

• Celery seed extract capsules (hypertension RCT): 52 patients received four celery seed extract capsules totalling 1.34 g per day, administered over a 4-week clinical trial.
• Standardized celery seed extract (85% 3nB; uncontrolled human study): 150 mg per day in 30 patients with mild to moderate hypertension.
• Celery seed extract (85% NBP; as used in human studies): 75 mg doses taken 2 times a day (totalling 150 mg/day) for 6 weeks. Authors of the study suggested that 150 mg of celery seed extract is equivalent to approximately 530 stalks of celery.
• DL-3-n-butylphthalide (pharmaceutical, ischemic stroke trial): 400 mg orally daily, given as one 200 mg capsule twice daily, as part of a 90-day treatment regimen.
• L-3-n-butylphthalide (animal Alzheimer's studies): Oral dosage of 15 mg/kg for a treatment duration of three months or more.
• General threshold (meta-analysis finding): Celery seeds or celery preparations exceeding 1,000 mg/day were found to be more effective than preparations using other parts of the celery plant.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

8.1 General Safety Profile

Celery seed has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status when used as a food. While neurotoxicity in rats due to the seed's chemical constituent falcarinol has been demonstrated, the concentration of furocoumarins in normal dietary intake is at least 1,000-fold lower than the no observed effect level for developing liver cancer in rats. Limited toxicological studies suggest celery seed extract lacks toxicity at normal dosages.

In numerous animal experiments and clinical trials, no toxicity has been observed when celery seed is consumed internally at reported doses. Safety findings from a scoping review showed that NBP is safe for up to 18 weeks at 15 mg/kg in animal studies, while adverse effects (7%) were reported when consuming NBP for 24 weeks at 600 mg daily in human trials.

8.2 Photosensitivity (Furocoumarins/Psoralens)

In rare cases, excessive consumption of celery, particularly the seeds or extracts, could lead to sensitivity to sunlight (photosensitivity) due to psoralen content. This concern is more relevant at medicinal doses than at food intake levels, given the low concentrations at normal dietary amounts noted above.

8.3 Allergic Reactions

IgE cross-reactivity between birch pollen, mugwort pollen, and celery is due to three distinct cross-reacting allergens, as investigated in the "birch-mugwort-celery syndrome." Individuals with pollen allergies, particularly to birch, may experience oral allergy syndrome (oral itching or swelling) upon consuming celery.

8.4 Anticoagulant / Antiplatelet Drug Interactions

Celery might slow blood clotting. Using celery in medicinal amounts with medications that slow clotting may increase the risk of bleeding. Some of these drugs include aspirin, clopidogrel (Plavix), dalteparin (Fragmin), dipyridamole (Persantine), enoxaparin (Lovenox), heparin, ticlopidine (Ticlid), warfarin (Coumadin), and others.

8.5 Diuretic Drug Interactions

Celery seed acts as a diuretic, so it could make the effects of other diuretics stronger and raise the risk of dehydration.

8.6 Thyroid Medication Interaction

Levothyroxine is used for low thyroid function. Taking celery seed along with levothyroxine might reduce the effects of levothyroxine. This interaction is based on case report data.

8.7 Lithium Interaction

Taking celery might decrease how well the body gets rid of lithium. This could increase the amount of lithium in the body and result in serious side effects. The lithium dose might need to be changed if celery is consumed in medicinal amounts.

8.8 Venlafaxine (Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitor) Interaction

Celery root extract might decrease how quickly the body breaks down venlafaxine. Taking celery root extract with venlafaxine might increase the effects and side effects of venlafaxine.

8.9 Pregnancy

Celery oil and celery seeds are likely unsafe when taken by mouth during pregnancy in the amounts found in medicine. Large amounts of celery might make the uterus contract and cause a miscarriage.

8.10 Photosensitizing Drug Interactions

Some drugs that cause photosensitivity include amitriptyline, ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, lomefloxacin, ofloxacin, levofloxacin, sparfloxacin, gatifloxacin, moxifloxacin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, methoxsalen, and trioxsalen. Because celery contains psoralens (furocoumarins), combining medicinal doses of celery with these drugs may theoretically increase the risk of photosensitivity reactions.

References

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