pomelo

Pomelo (Citrus maxima / Citrus grandis): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Classification

Scientific Nomenclature and Taxonomy

Pomelo is formally named Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr., with Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck recognized as a widely used synonym. In 1755, Johannes Burman validly described the species from its type specimen, giving it the name Aurantium maximum. In 1757, Pehr Osbeck named it Citrus grandis. Linnaeus revisited the taxonomy in 1767, renaming the species Citrus decumana. In 1917, Elmer Drew Merrill revised and renamed it Citrus maxima, the currently accepted name. Pomelo belongs to the family Rutaceae and is one of the largest fruits among citrus varieties.

Common Names

It is a perennial tree commonly known as Pomelo, Bhogate, Shaddock, Papanus, Pummelo, and various other names in different parts of the world. Additional regional designations include Yòu Zi (Mandarin), Jau (Cantonese), Bưởi (Vietnamese), Limau Abong (Malay), Suha (Tagalog), Pompelmoes (Dutch), and Pomélo (French).

Physical Description

The pomelo shows high morphological variability in its fruit characters, such as shape (oblate spheroid or sub-pyriform), size, thickness of the peel, colour of the pulp, and flavour; it produces the largest fruits in Citrus species, reaching up to 3 kg in weight per fruit. Pomelo flesh comes in different colors, such as red, pink, light pink, and white. The tree features a thick trunk, often crooked, with wide-spreading, low-hanging branches. Leaves are large, ovate, and leathery with winged petioles, and its sweetly fragrant flowers are creamy white or pale yellow.

Botanical Ancestry

Modern genomic research has identified the pomelo (Citrus maxima) as one of only three ancestral citrus species from which nearly all commercial citrus fruits descend. The other two are the mandarin (Citrus reticulata) and the citron (Citrus medica). This means the orange, grapefruit, lemon, lime, tangelo, and dozens of other citrus varieties all trace part of their genetic heritage back to the pomelo. Pomelo is considered the major ancestor of the grapefruit.

Cultivation and Growing Range

The plant is indigenous to Asia and is commercially grown in China, Nepal, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Vietnam, Indonesia, Philippines, Japan, and many other Asian countries; it has lately been introduced to many tropical nations. It grows widely in temperatures of 25–32°C and rainfall of 1,500–2,500 mm within a 3–4 month dry season, and does well in rough sand to heavy clay but favors fertile soils. In China, pomelo has been cultivated for over 3,000 years, growing in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Guangxi, Taiwan, Fujian, Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, and other provinces.

Common Forms and Preparations

The fruit pulp is processed into juice, wine, citric acid, and jam, and contains high levels of vitamin C. The flesh and juice are edible, and the peel may be candied; the fruit is eaten as a dessert or used in salads. In East Asia, especially in Cantonese cuisine, braised pomelo pith is used to make dishes that are high in fibre and low in fat. In supplemental and research contexts, the plant is utilized as key bioactive constituents identified in pomelo by-products, including dietary fibers, pectins, flavonoids, and essential oils. The peel is used for extraction of essential oils, polysaccharides, flavonoids, pectin, and naringin as isolated compounds for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical investigation.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Origins and Early History

Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests cultivation dating back at least 4,000 years, making the pomelo one of the earliest domesticated tree fruits. Pomelo is native to South-East Asia, particularly regions of Malaysia, Indonesia, and southern Thailand. Historical records suggest that pomelo has been cultivated for thousands of years, spreading across Asia and later being introduced to other parts of the world through trade and exploration. The tree may have been introduced to China around 100 BCE and is now heavily cultivated in southern China. Seeds of the tree were first brought to the Americas in the late 1600s.

Spread to Europe and the Americas

Pomelo (C. maxima [Burm.] Merr.) was introduced to Europe by the Muslims via the Iberian Peninsula and Sicily during the medieval period.

Traditional Medicinal Applications

Pomelo is traditionally used for ulcers, febrifuge, dyspepsia, lumbago, fever, cardiotonic purposes, gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Various ethnomedicinal reports have revealed the use of C. maxima for cough, fever, asthma, diarrhea, ulcer, and diabetes, and as a sedative. Pomelo peel has been prescribed in China for centuries for its anti-tussive, expectorant, anti-inflammatory, and other pharmacological effects.

In traditional medicine, various parts of this plant including leaf, pulp, and peel are used for generations as they are considered to have therapeutic potentials. Traditionally, the rinds of C. maxima are used for headaches in folk medicine, and the leaves have been used as an anti-inflammatory agent by applying hot leaf decoctions on swellings or inflamed areas of the body. Its leaves are also popularly used in folk medicine for the treatment of epilepsy, seizures, hemorrhages, and ulcers.

In parts of India, the pomelo (known as chakotra in Hindi and batabilebu in Bengali) is used in religious offerings and traditional Ayurvedic medicine. The fruit and its peel are used to treat digestive ailments, and pomelo trees are sometimes planted near temples for their fragrant blossoms.

In China, pomelo became a symbol of good fortune and prosperity, often gifted during celebrations. Particularly across Southeast Asia, pomelo has been used for its ethnomedicinal benefits in the treatment of ailments including cough, fever, asthma, ulcers, wounds, and gastrointestinal issues; its extracts have been applied as natural sedatives, detoxifying agents, and remedies for metabolic disorders such as diabetes and hypertension.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Flavonoids

Hesperidin, narirutin, naringin, and their aglycone (naringenin), which have traditionally been acknowledged to constitute a characteristic component of pomelo, are the fruit's major constituents. The principal pomelo fruit polyphenols are phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and tannins. The presence of flavonoids such as naringin, hesperidin, dihydrochalcone, and neohesperidin provides antioxidant properties, helping to avoid conditions brought on by oxidative stress.

Naringin, a flavanone glycoside composed of the naringenin aglycone and a neohesperidose attached to its hydroxyl group at C-7, is mainly found in the peels and fruits of pomelo, grapefruit, and sour orange. Naringin was found in high levels in very young citrus fruit tissues (immature), whereas lower levels of the flavonoid were detected in older tissues (mature); the content of naringin is higher in the immature than in the mature pomelo fruit.

Carotenoids

Carotenoids identified in pomelo fruit include lutein, α-carotene, and β-carotene, with lutein being the maximum isolated compound. The pulp and peel of pomelo appear golden yellow to red or pink color due to the presence of carotenoids. The peel and pulp of citrus fruits can contain more than 115 different carotenoids.

Limonoids

Limonoids are a highly oxygenated and modified class of triterpenoids, present in the flavedo oil glands of the peel, as well as in the seed, pomace, and albedo. Different limonoids identified in pomelo fruit include methyl nomilinate, limonin, nomilin, isoobacunoic acid, obacunoic acid, isolimonic acid, and ichigan. Pomelo fruit juice is bitter partly due to the presence of limonin and nomilin compounds.

Essential Oils and Terpenes

GC-MS analyses have revealed D-limonene as the main monoterpene hydrocarbon in pomelo essential oils across cultivars, with percentages ranging from 21.72–71.13%. Other major terpenoids present in pomelo peel essential oil include limonene and α-pinene. Essential oils obtained from the leaves and unripe fruits also contain nerolyl acetate, limonin, geraniol, and nerolol.

Coumarins and Furanocoumarins

Compounds identified in pomelo peel extracts include eight flavonoids, 18 coumarins, four organic acids, three aldehydes, and 12 other compounds, as identified by UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. Additional compounds reported from the peel include Aurapte, Auraptene, 5-Geranyloxy-7-methoxy-coumarin, roseoside, and bergamottin.

Pectin and Dietary Fibers

The content of pectin in pomelo peel (27.63%) has been reported to be higher than that of orange peel, apple peel, and banana peels. Key bioactive constituents identified in pomelo by-products include dietary fibers, pectins, flavonoids, and essential oils; these compounds have demonstrated the capacity to modulate gut microbiota composition by selectively promoting beneficial bacterial genera and enhancing short-chain fatty acid production.

Vitamins and Minerals

Raw pomelo flesh is 89% water, 10% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat. A 100-gram reference amount provides 159 kilojoules (38 kilocalories) of food energy, and is rich in vitamin C (68% of the Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant content. Pomelo fruit juice is high in vitamins A and C, and the peel offers high protein, carbohydrate, and mineral content. Beyond vitamin C, Citrus grandis is also enriched with various active compounds beneficial to health, including carotenoids, flavonoids, acridone alkaloids, limonoids, minerals, essential oils, and vitamin B complex.

Alkaloids and Other Classes

A phytochemical profile of C. maxima shows the presence of many bioactive chemical constituents under several chemical classes, including alkaloids, benzenoids, coumarins, carotenoids, phenols, flavonoids, tannins, terpenoids, saponins, amino acids, and carbohydrates.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Antioxidant Activity

The antioxidant activity is the most recognized effect of flavonoids, which depends on hydrogen donation and electron stabilization in the phenolic rings. Antioxidants help combat oxidative stress by neutralizing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reducing cellular damage. The antioxidant properties of pomelo extracts are derived from high content of polyphenols, flavonoids, and limonoids, which vary across different cultivars.

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Naringenin presents therapeutic effects in several models of inflammatory pain. It inhibits pain-like behavior induced by inflammatory stimuli such as phenyl-p-benzoquinone, acetic acid, formalin, complete Freund's adjuvant, capsaicin, carrageenan, superoxide anion, and LPS. Moreover, naringenin inhibits UVB irradiation-induced skin inflammatory edema, cytokine production, myeloperoxidase activity, matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity, and oxidative stress. Naringenin and naringin protect against the onset and severity of many human diseases via their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, inhibition of adhesion molecules, and enhancement of vascular smooth muscle relaxation in endothelial cells.

Antidiabetic Mechanisms

Antidiabetic properties of pomelo flavonoids involve mechanisms such as enhancing insulin secretion, improving insulin sensitivity, inhibiting carbohydrate digestion and absorption, and regulating glucose metabolism. Some flavonoids in pomelo have also been found to have inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase, an enzyme responsible for breaking down complex carbohydrates. Pomelo extract at concentrations of 0.25–2.00 mg/mL significantly inhibited the overall formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in a concentration-dependent manner.

Lipid-Lowering Mechanisms

Pomelo cultivars have demonstrated antihyperlipidemic activities including inhibition of pancreatic lipase and cholesterol esterase, as well as cholesterol micelle formation and bile acid binding. Naringin can inhibit lipid peroxidation and improve the antioxidant capacity of liver tissue.

Anticancer Mechanisms

Naringin and naringenin can suppress cancer development in various body parts, acting as effective alternative supplementary remedies. Their anticancer activities are pleiotropic, and they can modulate different cellular signaling pathways, suppress cytokine and growth factor production, and arrest the cell cycle.

Gut Microbiota Modulation

Bioactive compounds in pomelo by-products, especially dietary fibers and pectins, have demonstrated the capacity to modulate gut microbiota composition by selectively promoting beneficial bacterial genera and enhancing short-chain fatty acid production. Citrus pectin oligosaccharides and their microbial metabolites have exhibited anti-atherosclerosis effects on LPS-treated human macrophages by regulating the expression of proinflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-10, and NF-κB mRNA); in this context, cholesterol efflux was also accelerated by the upregulation of the liver X receptor-α (LXRα) and ABC transporter genes.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Antioxidant Activity

Preclinical / In vitro: Among different Thai pomelo cultivars, one variety (KY) had the highest phenolic content and the strongest DPPH radical scavenging capacity and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. Total phenolics of pomelo cultivars were significantly correlated with ferric reducing antioxidant power and Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity.

Evidence strength: The antioxidant activity of pomelo extracts is well-documented in in vitro and preclinical models. Naringin and its aglycone naringenin belong to citrus flavonoids and were found to display strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Human clinical evidence for pomelo-specific antioxidant effects remains limited.

5.2 Antidiabetic and Blood Glucose Effects

Preclinical: Citrus maxima has been recommended in traditional herbal medicine as anti-diabetic. Chronic hyperglycemia induces non-enzymatic protein glycation, which plays an important role in the development of diabetic complications. Immense efforts have been made to determine effective antiglycation compounds from natural products. Pomelo has shown beneficial effects for human health; one study determined the antiglycation effect of pomelo extract against fructose-mediated protein oxidation and glycation.

Proposed mechanism: Antidiabetic properties involve mechanisms such as enhancing insulin secretion, improving insulin sensitivity, inhibiting carbohydrate digestion and absorption, and regulating glucose metabolism.

Evidence strength: Several lines of investigation suggest that naringin supplementation is beneficial for the treatment of obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and metabolic syndrome; a number of molecular mechanisms underlying its beneficial activities have been elucidated. However, the effect on obesity and metabolic disorder remains to be fully established. Moreover, the therapeutic uses of these flavonoids are significantly limited by the lack of adequate clinical evidence. Overall, evidence remains largely preclinical (in vitro and animal models), with insufficient direct human clinical trials on pomelo per se.

5.3 Lipid Profile and Cardiovascular Effects

In vitro / preclinical: Six pomelo cultivars showed antihyperlipidemic activities including inhibition of pancreatic lipase and cholesterol esterase, as well as cholesterol micelle formation and bile acid binding. The α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and lipase-inhibitory activities of pomelo essential oils have been assessed in enzymatic assay models.

Cardiovascular: These bioactive compounds have demonstrated the potential to combat inflammation and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Naringenin and naringin attenuate inflammation, reduce oxidative stress, and improve the permeability of endothelial cells; they improve complications of vascular diseases and maintain the integrity of healthy endothelial cells.

Evidence strength: Evidence is predominantly from in vitro inhibition assays and animal studies. Direct, large-scale randomized controlled trials in humans assessing pomelo's effect on clinically meaningful lipid or cardiovascular outcomes are lacking as of the current literature.

5.4 Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic Effects

Preclinical: Available studies suggest that crude organic extracts of leaves of C. maxima have been screened for pharmacological activities and exhibited hepatoprotective, analgesic, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and CNS activity. Naringenin inhibits leukocyte recruitment in animal inflammation models. A 2023 study published in Clinical Phytoscience evaluated C. maxima seed extract in Swiss albino mice and found anxiolytic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory effects, noting that hypocholesterolemic and antioxidant activities were also found in the juice of C. maxima.

Evidence strength: All available direct evidence for pomelo's anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects is preclinical (animal models). Human clinical data are absent.

5.5 Antimicrobial Activity

Preclinical / In vitro: The methanolic extract of pomelo fruit peel exhibited antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, but not against Staphylococcus aureus. Various extracts of Citrus maxima have been scientifically evaluated in experimental animal models to be effective in treatment of microbial diseases.

Evidence strength: In vitro antibacterial activity has been documented for selected pomelo extracts; however, no human clinical trials exist on pomelo as an antimicrobial agent.

5.6 Hepatoprotective Effects

Preclinical: According to a 2017 study (Feksa D.L. et al.), the hepatoprotective effects of C. maxima leaf and peel extracts were found to lessen the hepatotoxicity caused by carbon tetrachloride in Wistar rats, as demonstrated by significantly lower levels of aspartate aminotransferase in experimental animals. Previous preclinical studies have demonstrated antidepressive, anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, hypnotic, muscle relaxant, and hepatoprotective activities of C. maxima leaf extracts.

Evidence strength: Hepatoprotective effects have been demonstrated in rodent models using induced liver injury. No human clinical evidence is available.

5.7 Anticancer Activity

Preclinical / In vitro: Numerous studies have reported the antioxidant and antiandrogenic properties of naringin and naringenin, as well as their ability to protect from inflammation and cancer, in various in vitro and in vivo experimental models in animals and humans. Their anticancer activities are pleiotropic, and they can modulate different cellular signaling pathways, suppress cytokine and growth factor production, and arrest the cell cycle.

Evidence strength: The plant possesses significant bioactivities including anticancer potential; however, extensive research is necessary to explore the detailed mechanism of action of extracts and compounds to design effective medicines. Most anticancer evidence is from cell-line and animal studies. Clinical human evidence is not established for pomelo-specific anticancer use.

5.8 Anxiolytic and CNS Effects

Preclinical: Modern pharmacological studies confirm the traditional efficacy of this plant as an antiepileptic, antidepressant, and anti-inflammatory agent. The plant is considered highly potent for treating anxiety, depression, and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The plant possesses significant bioactivities including anxiolytic activity based on experimental models.

Evidence strength: All current evidence for pomelo's CNS effects (anxiolytic, antidepressant, anticonvulsant) derives from animal studies. There are no registered clinical trials or published human studies establishing these effects.

5.9 Gut Health and Metabolic Regulation

Recent research highlights pomelo by-products as abundant sources of bioactive compounds with promising health-promoting properties; current scientific evidence focuses on their potential to support gut health and digestive function, with particular emphasis on metabolic regulation. These compounds have demonstrated the capacity to modulate gut microbiota composition by selectively promoting beneficial bacterial genera and enhancing short-chain fatty acid production.

Evidence strength: Evidence is primarily from in vitro colonic fermentation models and animal studies. Clinical intervention data in humans are very limited.

5.10 Insecticidal and Larvicidal Activity

Pomelo peel essential oil displays potential in controlling insect pests via contact and fumigant toxicity. It showed significant larvicidal activities against Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Aedes aegypti species of mosquitoes; however, Armigeres subalbatus was more resistant. This area of investigation is entirely preclinical and relates to applied use rather than human health.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Pomelo

• Metabolic / Endocrine: Antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects studied in vitro and in animal models; association with blood glucose regulation and lipid metabolism via enzyme inhibition.
• Cardiovascular: The dietary intake of flavonoids present in citrus fruits has been associated with a reduced risk of endothelium dysfunction. Naringin and naringenin are linked to vascular health via anti-inflammatory and vasodilatory properties.
• Hepatic: Hepatoprotective effects demonstrated in rodent models of toxic liver injury; associated with reductions in liver injury markers.
• Gastrointestinal: Traditionally used for indigestion and dyspepsia; pectin and fiber fractions studied for gut microbiota modulation.
• Immune / Inflammatory: Broad anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities documented in preclinical studies.
• Neurological / CNS: Preclinical data on anxiolytic, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, and anti-Alzheimer's properties.
• Oncological: In vitro and animal-model data on antiproliferative, apoptosis-inducing, and antiangiogenic properties of key flavonoids.
• Dermatological: Naringin has been shown to effectively protect the skin against UVB-induced damage due to its free radical-scavenging properties as a flavonoid.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

There is no standardized human therapeutic dosage established for pomelo or its isolated compounds as dietary supplements. The following dosages or concentrations are drawn directly from published research:

• Pomelo extract in vitro (antiglycation): Pomelo extract at concentrations of 0.25–2.00 mg/mL significantly inhibited the overall formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in a concentration-dependent manner.
• Naringin (hyperlipidemia mouse model): Pomelo peel is a natural plant product used in traditional Chinese medicine; in one study, naringin was extracted from pomelo peel and its therapeutic potential against hyperlipidemia was evaluated using ultrasonic-assisted extraction, prior to assessing its ability to bind sodium glycine cholate and sodium bovine cholate in vitro by simulating the gastrointestinal environment.
• Essential oil (in vitro enzyme inhibition): In a study investigating chemical profile, antioxidant activity, carbohydrate-hydrolysing enzyme inhibition, and hypolipidemic effect, essential oils were extracted from Sicilian Citrus maxima flavedo from five cultivars.
• Pomelo extracts in cultivar studies: Antihyperlipidemic enzyme inhibition studies used standardized extracts from six pomelo cultivars in Thailand, though precise dosage quantities varied by study design.

Extensive research is necessary to explore the detailed mechanism of action of extracts and compounds to design effective medicines, herbal products, and functional foods, and no defined clinical doses have been established in large randomized controlled trials.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

Drug–Drug Interactions via CYP3A4

As with the grapefruit, phytochemicals in the pomelo have the potential for drug interactions. Fruit juices contain several pharmacologically active compounds, including flavonoids (such as naringin and hesperidin) and furanocoumarins (such as bergamottin and 6′,7′-dihydroxybergamottin). It is not certain which compounds are responsible for interacting with medicines. Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) can be inhibited by fruit juices; naringin, which is metabolised to naringenin, is known to inhibit the isoenzyme CYP3A4.

These chemicals inhibit key drug metabolizing enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4). CYP3A4 is a metabolizing enzyme for almost 50% of drugs and is found in the liver and small intestinal epithelial cells. Pomelo contains high amounts of furanocoumarin derivatives. Grapefruit relatives and other varieties of pomelo have variable amounts of furanocoumarins.

The predominant mechanism for enhanced drug bioavailability via citrus juice is presumably the inhibition of oxidative drug metabolism in the small intestine. The consistent findings across studies of diverse CYP 3A substrates support the mechanistic hypothesis that one or more components of citrus juices inhibit CYP3A enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract.

P-Glycoprotein Interactions

Besides furanocoumarins, citrus fruits contain flavonoids like naringin and hesperidin. Naringin has also been implicated in inhibiting drug transporters such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp), which affects drug absorption and elimination. Pomelos contain naringin — sometimes at higher concentrations than grapefruit — which adds another layer of complexity. Inhibiting P-gp can increase plasma concentrations of some drugs independently from CYP3A4 inhibition. Thus, both enzyme inhibition and transporter interference contribute to the overall interaction risk posed by pomelos.

Classes of Drugs Potentially Affected

Drugs that interact with grapefruit-family compounds at CYP3A4 include benzodiazepines (triazolam, oral midazolam, oral nitrazepam, diazepam, clonazepam, alprazolam, quazepam) and protease inhibitors such as ritonavir. Calcium channel blockers, certain statins, immunosuppressants, and other CYP3A4 substrates represent additional categories of concern based on the documented grapefruit–drug interaction literature.

Notes on Naringin's Role in CYP Inhibition

Naringin is a weak inhibitor of oxidative metabolism in vitro, and administration of naringin in aqueous solution or capsule form to human subjects did not significantly affect the disposition of substrates for CYP3A4. This suggests the interaction risk from the whole fruit or juice may relate more significantly to furanocoumarins than to naringin alone, though the combined effect of multiple compounds in the intact fruit or juice cannot be excluded.

General Safety Profile

In traditional medicine, various parts of this plant including leaf, pulp, and peel are used for generations and are considered scientifically proven to have therapeutic potentials and safe for human use at food consumption levels. No acute toxicity has been reported from dietary consumption of the fruit. Extensive research is still necessary to explore the detailed mechanism of action of extracts and compounds to design effective medicines, herbal products, and functional foods, and long-term safety data for concentrated pomelo extracts or isolated compounds in supplement form are not yet established from large human trials.

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