IngredientsBee propolis — sometimes written as propolis — is the common name for a resinous, wax-like substance manufactured by honeybees. It is also widely known as bee glue or bee putty. Propolis, or bee glue, is a natural wax-like resinous substance found in bee hives where it is used by honeybees as cement and to seal cracks or open spaces. The term derives from the Greek pro (before) and polis (city), referring to its role as a defensive barrier at the hive entrance.
The primary producing species is Apis mellifera (the Western honeybee), though propolis is also gathered by Apis cerana (the Asian honeybee) and by stingless bees of the tribes Meliponini (genera including Trigona, Melipona, and Tetragonula). The term "propolis" encompasses propolis from all propolis-producing bees, namely European honey bees (Apis mellifera), Asian honey bees (Apis cerana), and stingless bees of the genera Trigona, Melipona, Geniotrigona, Heterotrigona, and Tetragonula.
Propolis is made from substances collected by bees from tree buds which are then digested and mixed with the substance secreted by bees' glands. The collected propolis from a beehive, also known as crude propolis, typically contains about 50% plant resins, 30% beeswax, 10% essential oils, 5% pollen, and 5% debris of wood and earth.
It is now generally accepted that propolis is collected by honeybees from tree buds or other botanical sources in the North Temperate Zone, which extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle. In temperate regions, poplar (Populus) species are the dominant botanical source. The compounds identified in GC/MS analysis indicated that the main plant sources of propolis were Populus alba, Populus tremuloides, and Salix alba. In Brazil, the unique green propolis derives largely from the native plant Baccharis dracunculifolia, giving it a distinctive chemical profile dominated by artepillin C.
The chemical composition, characterized by distinct herbal aromatic scents and a range of colors such as brown, green, yellow, and red, depends on factors including plant origin, geographic location, bee species, seasonality, and type of extraction solutions used.
Alternative and complementary medicine uses different propolis-based preparations such as sprays, ointments, and powders (mainly consisting of tinctures and ethanolic extracts) for the treatment of colds, flu, bronchial asthma, and other human ailments such as gastric disorders. Pharmaceutical applications include standardized propolis preparations such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, oral drops, sprays, creams, ointments, suppositories, tablets, and capsules.
The most common solvent for extraction is ethanol, yielding ethanolic extract of propolis (EEP), which preferentially dissolves the polyphenolic fraction. Aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts also exist. Standardized commercial extracts — such as EPP-AF® (a Brazilian green propolis extract) — are defined by quantified content of marker compounds, addressing the challenge of variable natural composition. Standardization of propolis preparations is a principal obstacle to the broader use of propolis in the pharmaceutical industry.
Propolis (bee glue) has been known for centuries. The ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians were aware of the healing properties of propolis and made extensive use of it as a medicine.
The Egyptians worshiped the bee and used propolis in the mummification process. It was also well known to the priests who, at that time, monopolized medicine and chemistry. In particular, propolis was used for skin beautification, mummification, preservative, and antiseptic to wounds, abscesses, and tumors. Among ancient Greeks, the Greeks used propolis to treat abscesses, while Assyrians put it on wounds and tumors to fight infection and help the healing process.
In the Middle Ages, propolis was not a very popular topic and its use in mainstream medicine disappeared. However, the knowledge of medicinal properties of propolis survived in traditional folk medicine. In medieval times, propolis was extensively used as a "herbal" medicine in Eastern Europe and in the Middle East.
The interest in propolis returned in Europe together with the Renaissance theory of ad fontes. After the First and Second World Wars, use of propolis expanded considerably in Eastern Europe, and research on the chemical composition of propolis started at the beginning of the twentieth century and was continued after WW II.
Across cultures, propolis was employed for a wide variety of purposes. It was well known from traditional uses in treating purulent disorders, improving wound healing, and alleviating many related discomforts. Its historical applications range from wound healing and oral health to its potential role as an antimicrobial agent. In folk medicine, it has been used for antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, wound healing, skin infections, gastrointestinal disorders, immunomodulation and cardiovascular benefits.
Propolis is one of the most chemically complex natural products described. To date, over 1,000 compounds have been identified in propolis, spanning various chemical classes, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, terpenes, and alkaloids. Earlier analyses had identified smaller numbers, and the count continues to grow: more than 420 different compounds have been characterized so far in propolis, from countries like the Netherlands, Malaysia, Australia, New Zealand, Italy, and many more.
The bulk composition of raw propolis consists of resins and balsams, beeswax, essential oils, pollen, and other organic matter. On a weight basis, propolis contains about 45 to 55% resins and balsams (including flavonoids, phenolic acids, and esters); about 25 to 35% waxes and fatty acids; about 10% essential oils; about 5% pollen (including proteins and protein-derived amino acids); and about 5% of other organic compounds and minerals (including trace minerals, vitamins, ketones, lactones, quinones, steroids, benzoic acid and esters, and sugars).
The main groups of chemical compounds found to be present in propolis, except resins, are waxes, polyphenols (phenolic acids, flavonoids), and terpenoids. Polyphenols and terpenoids are considered to be the most active. The flavonoid group includes chrysin, pinocembrin, apigenin, galangin, kaempferol, quercetin, tectochrysin, pinostrobin, and others.
The biologically active compounds of propolis include artepillin C, caffeic acid, CAPE (caffeic acid phenethyl ester), apigenin, chrysin, galangin, kaempferol, luteolin, genistein, naringin, pinocembrin, coumaric acid, and quercetin, which have a broad spectrum of biological and therapeutic properties such as antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, immunomodulatory, and immuno-inflammatory.
Typically, propolis contains lipid, beeswax, essential oils, pollen, and organic components. The latter include flavonoids, phenolic compounds, polyphenols, terpenes, terpenoids, coumarins, steroids, amino acids, and aromatic acids.
Comparative analyses of Brazilian, Chinese, Malaysian, and Australian propolis have shown that variations in botanical sources, environmental conditions, and bee species significantly influence chemical composition and biological efficacy. Brazilian green propolis, characterized by high levels of artepillin C and caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), exhibits strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Malaysian propolis is abundant in flavonoids and terpenes, enhancing its antimicrobial and wound-healing capacities. Chinese propolis contains unique phenolic alcohols and sesquiterpenes, providing notable cardioprotective and anti-inflammatory effects, while Australian propolis, rich in flavonoids and triterpenoids, possesses significant antimicrobial and anticancer potential.
The mechanism by which propolis supports health appears related to its antioxidant and inflammatory activity, although in most cases the range and scope of physiological effects of this complex nutrient are wide and varied. The polyphenolic compounds — particularly flavonoids and phenolic acids — scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increase the activity of endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD). Caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) is a phenylpropanoid naturally found in propolis that shows important biological activities, including neuroprotective activity by modulating the Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways, promoting antioxidant enzyme expression and inhibition of proinflammatory cytokine expression. CAPE is one of the most potent antioxidants supplied by the caffeic acid moiety, which has a higher antioxidant capacity than related phenylpropanoids such as ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid.
The ability of propolis to inhibit the production of key pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), directly targets the inflammatory phase of mucositis. Honey bee products including propolis, or their bioactive chemical constituents like polyphenols, demonstrate interesting therapeutic potential in the regulation of inflammatory mediator production, as seen in the modulation of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-2, and IL-7, and the decrease of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production.
Ethanolic extracts of propolis samples showed high antibacterial activity against Gram-positive cocci (Staphylococcus aureus), but had weak activity against Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and yeast (Candida albicans). Propolis extract enhanced the antibacterial and antifungal activities of many antimicrobial drugs against sensitive and resistant organisms, with an effect against Gram-positive bacteria stronger than that of Gram-negative bacteria. The synergistic action was related to strengthened action on interfering cell wall integrity and protein synthesis.
The best-known antitumor activity mechanism of CAPE is its inhibitory activity against the nuclear transcription factor NF-κB. The ability of NF-κB to inhibit apoptosis, induce proliferation, and intensify angiogenesis shows that NF-κB may be an important factor in oncogenesis. Inhibition of this factor leads to stimulation of apoptosis by an increase of caspase-3 concentration, a decrease of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, and an increase of the proapoptotic protein Bax. Additionally, CAPE affects genes associated with tumor cell growth and survival, angiogenesis, and chemoresistance. These are related in part to CAPE's role as a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a class of drugs designated as epigenetic agents that modulate the activities of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.
Propolis's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties help ameliorate symptoms by inhibiting advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and their receptors (RAGEs), as well as pro-inflammatory signaling cascades. Preclinical data also indicate that propolis promotes glucose transporter (GLUT4) translocation in skeletal muscle via PI3K- and AMPK-dependent pathways, though this mechanism has not yet been confirmed in human studies.
Pharmacokinetic studies showed inhibitory activities of propolis extracts on several CYP450 enzymes in vitro and in vivo. However, the effects on those CYP450 were deemed insignificant in humans, which may be attributed to the low bioavailability of the contributing bioactive compounds when administered in the body.
It has been reported that propolis has anti-oxidative properties that could help in the treatment of chronic diseases. A systematic review aimed to summarize the results of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that assessed the antioxidant effects of propolis; PubMed, Scopus, and ISI Web of Science databases were searched up to July 2020. RCTs that evaluated the effects of oral propolis supplementation on oxidative stress parameters were included. Six RCTs, totaling 364 participants were included in the systematic review.
A notable clinical study used the standardized Brazilian extract EPP-AF®. A two-phase sequential, open-label, nonrandomized, before-and-after clinical trial had healthy participants receive two EPP-AF® doses (375 and 750 mg/day, three times daily) during 7 ± 2 days, starting with the lower dose. The biomarker of lipid peroxidation (8-ISO) decreased with both doses of EPP-AF® compared to baseline, and 8-OHDG, a biomarker of DNA oxidation, was also reduced compared to baseline with the 750 mg/d dose. Reduction of biomarkers of oxidative stress damage was accompanied by increased plasma SOD activity and increased GSH at the 375 mg/d dose. This study's open-label, non-randomized design limits the certainty of conclusions.
This is among the most rigorously investigated areas for propolis in human trials. A meta-analysis of 12 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comprising 731 participants demonstrates that propolis supplementation significantly improves lipid profiles (LDL-C, triglycerides, HDL-C), glycemic control (fasting blood sugar, insulin resistance/HOMA-IR, HbA1c), and inflammation (C-reactive protein) in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).
Specific pooled effect sizes were reported as follows: propolis supplementation significantly increased HDL-C (MD = 0.13, 95% CI 0.10–0.16, p < 0.00001), reduced LDL-C (MD = −0.32; p = 0.009) and triglycerides (MD = −0.15; p = 0.04), lowered fasting blood sugar (MD = −1.13; p = 0.01), reduced HOMA-IR (MD = −0.95; p < 0.00001), reduced HbA1c (MD = −0.44; p = 0.01), and significantly reduced C-reactive protein (MD = −2.68; p < 0.00001).
An individual double-blind, placebo-controlled RCT in Iran used 1,000 mg/day of Iranian propolis extract for 90 days (n = 94 T2DM patients). There was a significant decrease in serum levels of glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c), 2-hour post-prandial glucose, insulin, homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), HOMA-β, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), and TNF-α.
In patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic periodontitis, propolis supplementation has been found to improve glycemic control and periodontal health. A clinical trial demonstrated significant reductions in hemoglobin A1c, fasting plasma glucose, and serum Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine levels, alongside improved periodontal parameters.
Evidence strength: Moderate — multiple RCTs and meta-analyses exist, but heterogeneity in propolis origin, dosage, and duration across trials limits certainty. Further large, rigorously standardized RCTs are needed.
Research highlights that propolis is a desirable agent to promote oral health conditions, including dental caries, due to its effectiveness against Streptococcus sobrinus, Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus cricetus, and Escherichia coli. It may have a beneficial role in the prevention of periodontal disease by affecting Porphyromonas gingivalis and Actinomyces oris.
In a systematic review and meta-analysis on propolis as a remedy for dental plaque and gingival inflammation, the significant decrease in papillary bleeding index observed in multiple studies supports the role of propolis in promoting healthier gingival tissues.
Regarding recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS): based on the pooled data from seven studies comparing topical propolis with placebo or alternative treatment, the review authors conclude that uncertainty remains about the effects of propolis on the healing, pain, redness, and recurrence rates of RAS. Only one study reported mucosal redness and itching with topical propolis, and another reported acne in the systemic group; therefore, propolis appears safe to use topically and systemically.
For oral mucositis (OM) in cancer patients: oral mucositis (OM) stands out as a debilitating inflammatory condition that compromises quality of life and may lead to interruption of cancer therapy. Given the limited efficacy of conventional treatments, propolis has been investigated as a natural therapeutic alternative due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. External applications of propolis through pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and oral products such as ointments, gels, and mouthwashes have been employed to reduce oral infections, dental plaque, and for the treatment of stomatitis.
Evidence strength: Moderate for plaque and gingivitis; preliminary and inconclusive for aphthous ulcers and oral mucositis in cancer therapy. Standardized protocols and larger RCTs are lacking.
There are numerous scientific publications showing the antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunoregulatory, and other biological properties of propolis, especially in vitro and in animal models. The ethanolic extract's activity against Gram-positive bacteria (particularly S. aureus) is well-documented across many studies. Activity against Gram-negative bacteria and fungi is generally weaker and more variable.
The strong antioxidant activity of propolis also strengthened the therapeutic effect of metformin in attenuating hyperglycemia and pancreatic damage, as well as mitigating oxidative stress in the liver, kidney, and testis.
Evidence strength: Robust in vitro and preclinical evidence for antimicrobial activity, particularly against Gram-positive bacteria; translating this to confirmed clinical efficacy requires more human RCT data.
The properties of propolis may be important in the prevention and treatment of respiratory tract diseases caused by viruses such as SARS-CoV-2, influenza viruses, the parainfluenza virus, and rhinoviruses. The anti-viral effect is observed not only with extracts but also with single biologically active compounds found in propolis (e.g., apigenin, caffeic acid, chrysin, kaempferol, quercetin).
In COVID-19 specifically: in one clinical study, two groups of patients with COVID-19 (aged 18–80 years) received an extract of green propolis (Propomax® capsules) at doses of 400 mg (40 patients) and 800 mg (42 patients) per day for 7 days, in addition to standard hospital therapy. The results showed that the patients receiving propolis experienced a reduction in their hospitalization time.
A second RCT administered: 300 mg of extract of propolis in tablets three times a day for 14 days to patients with COVID-19 (aged 18–75 years, n = 40). An improvement in clinical symptoms was observed in patients receiving propolis treatment compared to those who received standard treatment.
Molecular simulation data indicate that flavonoids in propolis and honey (e.g., rutin, naringin, caffeic acid phenyl ester, luteolin, and artepillin C) may inhibit viral spike fusion in host cells, viral–host interactions that trigger the cytokine storm, and viral replication. However, these are in silico findings, not confirmed in large clinical trials.
In vitro and in vivo assays have demonstrated propolis's broad-spectrum effects on viral infectivity and replication, as well as modulatory actions on cytokine production and immune cell activation. Clinical trials confirmed propolis's undeniable potential as an effective therapeutic agent; however, the lack of rigorous randomized clinical trials in the context of respiratory diseases is tangible.
Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate. In vitro and animal evidence is strong; human RCT data are limited in scale and methodological rigor.
Several preclinical studies demonstrated the therapeutic effects of propolis extracts against allergic inflammation, asthma, allergic rhinitis, atopic dermatitis, and food allergy, which may be partly attributed to their inhibitory effects on the activation of mast cells and basophils. Clinically, the consumption of propolis as a supplement or an adjunct therapy is safe and attenuates various pathological conditions in asthma. Such an approach may be adopted for atopic dermatitis and allergic rhinitis.
Improvement in the immune response via activation of B and T lymphocyte cells, both in vitro, in vivo, and in clinical studies, has been reported.
Evidence strength: Preclinical evidence is promising; human evidence is currently limited and cannot support definitive clinical recommendations.
Propolis has been effectively used in treatment of dermatological, laryngological, and gynecological problems, neurodegenerative diseases, wound healing, and in treatment of burns and ulcers. Its multiple actions — antimicrobial (reducing infection risk), anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant — converge to support wound repair. Its multifaceted biological properties include antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, wound-healing, and immunomodulatory activities.
Evidence strength: Moderate preclinical evidence; human clinical trial evidence is limited, with no large standardized RCTs to date.
Ongoing research continues to uncover new bioactive molecules within propolis and further elucidate its biological properties, including antioxidant, antibacterial, fungicidal, antidiabetic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory activities.
At the cellular level, CAPE is thought to be responsible for its varied properties, including antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties. cDNA array performed on breast cancer cells revealed activation of DNA damage signaling involving upregulation of GADD45α and p53 tumor suppressor proteins. Molecular docking analysis revealed that CAPE is capable of disrupting mortalin–p53 complexes. CAPE-induced disruption of these complexes led to nuclear translocation and activation of p53 resulting in growth arrest in cancer cells.
A clinical trial investigated propolis in head-and-neck cancer: Brazilian organic propolis extract was used for the treatment of patients after radiotherapy, applied following surgery of head and neck cancer. The use of radiotherapy procedures in oral and oropharyngeal cancer patients can induce acute and chronic toxicities, including oral mucositis, dysphagia, dysgeusia, and oral candidiasis.
Evidence strength: Predominantly in vitro and preclinical. No large-scale human RCTs have confirmed clinical anticancer efficacy. This evidence does not support use as an anticancer treatment.
Propolis showed a potential capacity to enhance short-term and long-term memory function together with donepezil, and improve motor function with levodopa and parasite-killing activity with praziquantel. These findings are largely preclinical and await human validation.
As scientific understanding of propolis grows, it could become an integral part of treatment strategies for neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular conditions, metabolic disorders, and autoimmune disease.
Propolis has been evaluated for its effects on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), showing protective effects against hepatic steatosis and fibrosis in preclinical models. Human data in this area remain sparse.
Evidence strength: Early-stage/preclinical only for neurological conditions and NAFLD. Insufficient human RCT data to draw conclusions.
There is no universally established or regulatory-approved dose for propolis. The following dosages are drawn directly from published clinical research:
The appropriate design of standardized propolis preparations such as mouthwashes, toothpastes, oral drops, sprays, creams, ointments, suppositories, tablets, and capsules is an active area of pharmaceutical investigation. Standardization of propolis preparations remains a principal obstacle to the broader use of propolis in the pharmaceutical industry.
Future studies on the appropriate amount and type of propolis are recommended. Further intervention with standardized protocols and long-term follow-up will be needed to determine its optimal dosage, time of application, method of preparation, and effects on allergic reaction.
Although generally safe, propolis can trigger allergic reactions in susceptible individuals. Although propolis is generally considered safe for consumption, individuals may have varying sensitivities or allergies to bee products. While specific clinical trial studies on propolis supplements' side effects are scarce, a few potential side effects such as allergic reactions, contact dermatitis, and gastrointestinal upset have been mentioned in general research and anecdotal reports. These side effects are generally infrequent and mild.
Allergy to propolis is a well-documented and clinically significant concern. Various allergens have been isolated from propolis, namely 3-methyl-2-butenyl caffeate, phenylethyl caffeate, benzyl caffeate, geranyl caffeate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl cinnamate, methyl cinnamate, ferulic acid, and tectochrysin. Propolis appears to be one of the most frequent contact sensitizers and should be included in routine patch testing in children and adolescents before prescribing.
European studies have found patch test reaction rates of 1.2–6.6%. Allergic reactions may manifest as contact cheilitis, contact stomatitis, perioral eczema, labial edema, oral pain, peeling of lips, and dyspnea.
Despite a generally favorable safety profile, propolis is a bee-derived product and can trigger allergic reactions in susceptible individuals. Reported symptoms include local swelling, redness, itching, and, in rare cases, systemic reactions. Clinicians should take a thorough patient history regarding allergies to honey, bee pollen, or bee venom before recommending propolis-containing products.
Cross-reactivity has also been noted: if a person has an allergy to Peru balsam, propolis use warrants caution.
Propolis may interact with anti-inflammatory drugs, anti-fungal antibiotics, anticoagulants, anti-retrovirals, and anti-cancer drugs.
Pharmacokinetic studies showed inhibitory activities of propolis extracts on several CYP450 enzymes in vitro and in vivo. However, the effects on those CYP450 were deemed insignificant in humans, which may be attributed to the low bioavailability of the contributing bioactive compounds when administered in the body. The enhanced bioactivities of propolis and main pharmaceutical drugs support using propolis in integrative medicine with a low risk of altered pharmacokinetic activities.
The interactions between propolis and medicines are not fully understood. As with most dietary supplements, the research on drug interactions with propolis is incomplete.
Several case reports of allergic reactions have been reported. Additionally, rare cases of acute renal failure have been documented in individuals who took propolis, though causality has not been firmly established. Future research should prioritize establishing precise dose–response relationships and evaluating long-term safety.
Propolis is sold as a dietary supplement in the United States and as a food supplement in much of Europe. The FDA has not reviewed propolis for safety and effectiveness as a dietary supplement. The lack of a universally agreed standardization method means that commercial products can vary substantially in their phenolic content and biological potency.
Health conditions that Bee propolis may help support.
Bee propolis has been used in traditional medicine for skin wounds, abscesses, and infections since antiquity. Scientific evidence supports its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties through flavonoid-rich composition. A case report documented use of a honey-propolis-myrrh combination to heal a deep infected abscess wound.
Bee propolis contains CAPE (caffeic acid phenethyl ester) and flavonoids with potent NF-κB inhibitory and antioxidant effects in vascular endothelium. RCTs show propolis supplementation reduces LDL-C by 10–15%, reduces oxidized LDL, and decreases arterial inflammation (hsCRP, IL-6). It inhibits platelet aggregation and reduces endothelial adhesion molecule expression.
Bee propolis contains CAPE and flavonoids that inhibit NF-κB and reduce pro-inflammatory cytokines relevant to autoimmune inflammation. Clinical and animal studies support anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity in RA and IBD. CAPE promotes Treg cells and suppresses Th17 responses.
Bee propolis has documented antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties relevant to insect bites and stings, particularly for preventing secondary infection and reducing inflammation. It is a constituent of traditional apitherapy for skin injuries and a PubMed-indexed study confirmed synergistic wound-healing effects of propolis and honey. It appears in homeopathic and natural products for bite and sting symptom relief.
Bee propolis has demonstrated clinical superiority over acyclovir for HSV-induced blister (cold sore) healing in multiple trials. A 2021 systematic review and meta-analysis found propolis statistically superior to acyclovir for healing HSV skin lesions (p=0.0001). It is antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and wound-healing through its flavonoid and caffeate content.
Bee propolis has documented in vitro antifungal activity against Candida albicans and other Candida species confirmed across multiple geographic sources. It inhibits germ tube formation and hyphal growth—key Candida virulence factors. Multiple peer-reviewed studies and integrative Candida protocols support its use for Candida and yeast balance.
Bee propolis, a resinous substance produced by bees with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties, has been evaluated in a 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis (PubMed PMID 38248221) specifically for recurrent aphthous stomatitis. Multiple RCTs included in this review found propolis reduced healing time, pain, and recurrence of aphthous ulcers. A randomized clinical trial also directly compared propolis versus silver nitrate and other treatments for canker sores, showing significant efficacy.
Bee propolis has been evaluated in multiple RCTs for herpes labialis and shown to be at least equivalent, and in several trials superior, to topical acyclovir 5% cream in reducing healing time and symptom scores. A 2026 meta-analysis confirmed propolis and honey showed better healing outcomes than acyclovir. The most studied formulation is propolis special extract GH 2002 at 0.5% concentration.
Bee propolis has been evaluated in atopic dermatitis studies, including as part of propolis-tea tree oil-aloe vera cream (PTAC) formulations. Its polyphenols and artepillin C inhibit NF-κB and inflammatory mediators. Traditional use for skin inflammation is ancient and cross-cultural.
Bee propolis has demonstrated antifungal activity against Candida species, Trichophyton, and Aspergillus in multiple peer-reviewed in vitro studies and has been evaluated in at least one bench-to-clinic study for onychomycosis. It inhibits phospholipase activity, disrupting fungal adhesion, and shows broad activity against dermatophytes responsible for tinea infections. Its active antifungal components include flavonoids, phenolic acids, and terpenoid esters.
Propolis (bee glue) has demonstrated anti-H. pylori activity in vitro and in clinical studies. It contains flavonoids and phenolic acids with direct antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects on the gastric mucosa. A 2014 World Journal of Gastroenterology review identified propolis as a clinically-researched natural remedy for H. pylori gastritis.
Propolis extracts have been evaluated in multiple RCTs for periodontal and gingival conditions. A 2021 multicenter RCT in 104 patients with gingivitis and periodontitis found propolis mouthwash significantly reduced modified gingival index at 4 and 8 weeks, and lowered crevicular IL-6. A comprehensive systematic review identified propolis and quercetin as the natural products with the highest antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activity in periodontal disease management.
Bee propolis has documented in vitro antiparasitic activity against Giardia lamblia, Toxoplasma gondii, and Leishmania, and is listed among proposed natural treatments for intestinal parasites in EBSCO's complementary medicine resource.
Propolis is a resinous beehive product with broad-spectrum antimicrobial and antiviral properties reviewed across 158 publications for respiratory tract diseases. A clinical study in COVID-19 pneumonia patients showed green Brazilian propolis produced earlier viral clearance and reduced mortality versus standard care. Propolis inhibits SARS-CoV-2 via multiple mechanisms and is active against secondary bacterial lung infection pathogens.
Bee propolis contains antimicrobial flavonoids and caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) with documented clinical efficacy in reducing respiratory illness duration and severity. An RCT in COVID-19 patients (PROPOLCOVID) showed significantly shorter hospital stays with propolis versus standard care, supporting its use in post-illness recovery.
Bee propolis has documented wound-healing and anti-scar properties supported by clinical studies. Its flavonoids (including caffeic acid phenethyl ester) exhibit anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and collagen-modulating effects relevant to scar healing.
Bee propolis has the same evidence as propolis above—in vitro antibiofilm activity against chronic rhinosinusitis pathogens confirmed in a 2023 PMC study, traditional use for respiratory infections, and inclusion in combination sinusitis support products. Antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory mechanisms are established.
Bee propolis is identical in evidence to Propolis—see above. Direct RCT evidence (Esposito et al., 2020, n=122) confirms standardized propolis oral spray reduces sore throat, dysphonia, and throat swelling versus placebo in mild upper respiratory tract infections. Anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial polyphenols are the active mechanism.
Propolis has direct clinical evidence in tonsillopharyngitis. A 2004 RCT (n=328 children) with an echinacea-propolis-vitamin C supplement showed >50% reduction in tonsillopharyngitis incidence. An open-label RCT (n=130 children) with a honey-propolis-Pelargonium-zinc supplement showed significantly lower tonsillitis severity scores vs standard care alone. Propolis exhibits potent antibacterial activity against Streptococcus pyogenes.
Propolis is a bee-derived resin with flavonoids that inhibit COX and LOX enzymes, reducing pulpal inflammation. A 2024 PMC narrative review of 104 studies (53 human clinical trials) confirmed propolis's antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens, anti-inflammatory effects, and utility in endodontic procedures. A 2025 PMC systematic review of 21 dental pain studies ranked propolis among the strongest phytotherapeutic analgesics for dental applications.
Bee propolis exhibits broad-spectrum antiviral and immunomodulatory activity through its flavonoid and phenolic constituents. In vitro and in vivo studies confirm activity against influenza, coronaviruses, rhinovirus, parainfluenza, and HSV. It modulates pro-inflammatory cytokines and activates both innate and adaptive immune responses against viral pathogens.
Oral propolis achieved 75% cure in plane warts and 73% in common warts in a randomized 3-month trial of 135 patients, significantly outperforming both echinacea and placebo. Propolis is rich in flavonoids with antiviral and immunomodulatory properties. Topical propolis formulations also demonstrated wart-clearing activity in an uncontrolled case series of 53 patients.
Bee propolis is a resinous hive product with well-documented antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties supported by multiple in vitro, in vivo, and some clinical studies. It shortens healing time, reduces scar formation, and promotes epithelialization and wound contraction.
Bee propolis has traditional use and preclinical/clinical evidence for upper respiratory infections. Its polyphenolic constituents (CAPE, galangin, quercetin) demonstrate antimicrobial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory activity against respiratory pathogens. A 2023 clinical study found it recommended as supportive therapy for chronic URTI including rhinosinusitis.
Body systems that Bee propolis may help support.
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