Carrot

Carrot (Daucus carota L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity

Botanical and Chemical Classification

Daucus carota L. is a biennial herbaceous species belonging to the Apiaceae family. The species comprises 13 subspecies, with one being cultivated (D. carota L. ssp. sativus (Hoffm.) Arcang.) and the remaining being wild. The cultivated edible carrot is formally designated Daucus carota L. subsp. sativus, while the wild carrot is designated Daucus carota L. subsp. carota. Both have attracted significant scientific and medicinal attention, though their phytochemical profiles and pharmacological emphases differ.

It is one of the most popular root vegetables grown worldwide. The carrot is composed of the umbel, the stem, and the root. The stem under the white flower umbrella can reach a height of about 1 m. The roots represent the most commonly eaten part of the carrot; they are greatly enlarged and sweet with good storage ability. The root is formed by the peel or periderm, the pulpy outer cortex or phloem, and the inner core or xylem.

Color Varieties and Their Phytochemical Significance

Primary pigments expressing various colours in varieties of carrots are attributed by carotene, lycopene, anthocyanin, and lutein. Orange carrots are the most familiar form in Western markets; the orange color of modern carrots was bred intentionally by Dutch growers in the 17th century. Purple carrots are rich in anthocyanins, while yellow and red varieties have distinct carotenoid profiles.

Common Dosage Forms and Preparations

Daucus carota is an important food crop utilized worldwide which can be consumed raw, in juice or drinks, cooked as a savoury dish or in sweet dishes. As a dietary supplement or nutraceutical ingredient, carrot is encountered in several standardized and non-standardized forms:

• Raw whole root: Eaten fresh; the form studied most frequently in prospective cohort research.
• Carrot juice: A major vehicle in clinical bioavailability and intervention studies.
• Dried powder / freeze-dried powder: Carrot extract is typically made by grinding fresh carrots into a fine powder or by extracting the juice from the carrots using various methods such as steam distillation, cold pressing, or solvent extraction.
• Standardized extracts: Concentrated powders or liquid extracts standardized by carotenoid percentage or ratio (e.g., 4:1 extracts).
• Carrot seed essential oil: Steam-distilled from the seeds of wild or cultivated carrot, used separately in aromatherapy and topical preparations.
• Functional food ingredients: Carrots are known as a multinutritional food source and are rich in natural bioactive compounds, such as phenolics, carotenoids, polyacetylenes, and ascorbic acid, fiber, and minerals. As a result, carrots can be used as a functional ingredient in any product to increase the biological and nutritional values.

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2. Traditional and Historical Use

Origins and Early Domestication

Wild carrot appears in many temperate regions of the world, far beyond its Mediterranean and Asian centres of origin where this plant displays great diversity. Almost certainly those ancient cultures in these regions used wild and early forms of the domesticated carrot as a herb and a medicine before they were used as a root vegetable in the conventional sense of that term today. It is also quite likely that the seeds were used medicinally in the Mediterranean region since antiquity.

Ancient Greece and Rome

Traditionally, the wild carrot was utilized by the ancient Greeks and Romans for various medicinal purposes. Dioscorides, a Greek physician and botanist who lived in the 1st century AD, documented the uses of the plant in his renowned work "De Materia Medica." Textual and botanical evidence suggests that references such as stafulinos, daukos, and giggidion probably are species of carrot, and all would have a more ancient history than currently assumed, with a use in the ancient Greek world attested at least at the time of the Hippocratics, that is, the 5th century BCE.

DNA analysis of the tablets recovered from the shipwreck traditionally identified as the Relitto del Pozzino (Pozzino shipwreck) dated to 140–120 BCE identified traces of carrot in the tablets. This early-domesticated/known carrot was used in medicine until at least the 2nd/3rd century CE.

The carrot likewise found a place as a medicinal plant in the gardens of ancient Rome, where it was used as an aphrodisiac and in some cases as part of a concoction to prevent poisoning. Mithridates VI, King of Pontius (120 BC–63 BC) had a recipe including Cretan carrot seeds.

Byzantine and Medieval Traditions

Archaeological remains point that carrots were already cultivated and prized by the Ancient Egyptians, who left temple drawings depicting them as far back as 2,000 years BCE. By 70 CE, they were already featured in one of Dioscorides' treatises on medicinal plants, and by the early Middle Ages, many varieties were commonplace from Western Europe to China. Several Byzantine collections and illustrations describe carrots being used both orally and topically as an anti-inflammatory, diuretic, and to solve "women's ailments" (menstrual irregularities).

Traditional Medicinal Uses Across Cultures

Traditionally, the wild carrot has been recognized for its antilithic, diuretic, carminative, antiseptic, and anti-inflammatory properties and has been employed in the treatment of urinary calculus, cystitis, gout, prostatitis, and cancer. In Lebanon, wild carrot (Daucus carota, Apiaceae) has been usually used for gastric ulcer therapy, diabetes, and muscle pain.

From the 16th to 18th centuries, as selective breeding allowed for better yields of "edible carrots," the differences between the domesticated food crop and its wild counterpart grew, and many of these medicinal uses were abandoned. Carrots were initially cultivated for their medicinal properties and were used to treat a variety of ailments, including digestive problems and infections.

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3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Overview of Phytochemical Classes

The four types of phytochemicals found in carrots, namely phenolics, carotenoids, polyacetylenes, and ascorbic acid, have been summarised as the primary bioactive classes. Thirteen wild Daucus carota subspecies have been analyzed, revealing over 310 compounds, including terpenoids, phenylpropenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids, with 40 constituting more than 3% of the composition.

Carotenoids

Orange carrots are a well-known source of phenolics and α- and β-carotene, which impart their characteristic colour and account for about half of the provitamin A carotenoid found in the food supply. Beta-carotene is the most abundant carotenoid in the diet, serum, and human body tissues. Beta-carotene is a powerful fat-soluble carotenoid and the most important provitamin A compound in the human diet. This orange-red pigment serves dual functions: as a potent antioxidant capable of quenching singlet oxygen, and as a safe, regulated precursor to vitamin A.

The one clear function of certain carotenoids that is firmly linked to a health outcome is the provitamin A activity of some dietary carotenoids (α-carotene, β-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin) and their role in the prevention of vitamin A deficiency. Two identical β-ionone rings flank each end of the β-carotene molecule — this symmetry distinguishes it from α-carotene (which has one β-ionone and one ε-ionone ring). The all-trans isomer is most thermodynamically stable and biologically active. The conjugated double-bond system is responsible for its characteristic orange-red color and exceptional singlet oxygen quenching capacity.

Carrots also supply lutein and zeaxanthin. Lutein and zeaxanthin play a vital role in visual health. Carrots provide approximately 85% (range 82–94%) of dietary α-carotene across different food cultures, providing even stronger correlations with carrot intake than β-carotene.

Polyacetylenes (Falcarinol-Type)

Carrot is the main dietary source of polyacetylenic oxylipins, including falcarinol (FaOH), falcarindiol (FaDOH) and falcarindiol 3-acetate (FaDOH3Ac), with FaOH serving as the intermediate metabolite of polyacetylenes (PA), from which the other forms are generated. Carrots have been intensively investigated for their content of polyacetylenes, and so far approximately 16 different C17 acetylenic oxylipins have been isolated from carrots, of which the majority are of the falcarinol-type.

Unlike polyphenols, which are widely available in the diet, polyacetylenes are available only from the Apiaceae family vegetables, including carrot, parsnip, fennel, celery, and many herbs (parsley, lovage, etc). Polyacetylenes of the falcarinol-type have shown many interesting bioactivities including anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet-aggregatory, cytotoxic, and antitumor activity as well as activity against bacteria and mycoplasma. Falcarinol appears to be the most bioactive among polyacetylenes of the falcarinol-type.

Phenolic Compounds

LC-ESI/HRMS analysis of purple carrot has allowed the assignment of twenty-eight compounds, putatively identified as isocitric acid, phenolic acid derivatives, hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, anthocyanins, flavanonols, flavonols, oxylipins, and a sesquiterpene; hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives followed by anthocyanins were the two most represented groups in purple carrot. The purple carrot cultivar is characterized by a relevant content of phenolic compounds and anthocyanins, which may play an important role in reducing the risk of chronic diseases and in the treatment of metabolic syndrome.

Sesquiterpenes (Wild Carrot Seed)

The anticancer activity of D. carota oil extract may be attributed to the presence of major sesquiterpenes including β-caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, α-humulene, and a prominent compound C15H26O (later identified as β-2-himachalen-6-ol), in addition to other minor constituents. These compounds are noteworthy for their diverse pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal activities.

Other Nutrients

From a nutritional point of view, the carrot is a rich source of bioactive compounds such as vitamins, minerals, antioxidant compounds and dietary fibre. D. carota contains many phytochemical constituents such as carbohydrates — sugars and dietary fibres — fats, proteins, vitamins like vitamin A, beta-carotene, lutein, zeaxanthin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin C, and vitamin K.

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4. Mechanisms of Action

Provitamin A and Visual Cycle

Unlike preformed vitamin A, beta-carotene conversion is controlled by the body's needs, making toxicity virtually impossible from dietary sources. The body converts beta-carotene into vitamin A, which is essential for retinal function and immune competence.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

β-carotene is known to quench singlet oxygen and can have strong antioxidant activity. Carotenoids are vital antioxidants for plants and animals; they protect cells from oxidative events and act against the inflammatory process and carcinogenesis. The proposed immunomodulatory mechanisms of the antioxidant properties of carrot's β-carotene include action through other bioactive compounds such as phenolic acid, flavonoid, polyacetylene, and ascorbic acid via the anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and overall (innate and adaptive) immune response modulation.

Polyacetylene Mechanisms: Anti-inflammatory and Anticancer Pathways

The mechanism of action for the anti-neoplastic effect of falcarinol and falcarindiol appears to be due to inhibition of pro-inflammatory and transcription factor biomarkers for inflammation and cancer. The mechanisms of action attributed to polyacetylenes are similar to those of many other anticancer drugs, which include triggering cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, unfolded protein response (UPR), and reducing inflammation.

Falcarinol extract supplementation at 5 mg/kg given twice daily for a week enhanced the heme oxygenase-I (HO-1) expression, which is the target enzyme of Nrf2, a key regulatory protein in the cellular antioxidant and anti-inflammatory response.

Carrots contain an abundant spectrum of bioactive compounds, including phenolics, carotenoids, polyacetylenes, ascorbic acid, and dietary fiber. These constituents have been reported to modulate processes such as apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, angiogenesis, and pathways involved in cell proliferation in experimental systems.

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5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Cancer Prevention

Epidemiological and Cohort Evidence

A prospectively followed Danish cohort of 55,756 citizens with an observation time upwards of 25 years was investigated for association between eating raw carrots on a regular basis and developing various adenocarcinoma-dominant cancers and leukemia. A dose-dependent reduction in incidence was seen for cancer of the lung (HR 0.76, CI95% 0.66–0.87) and pancreas (HR 0.79, CI95% 0.61–1.03), as well as leukemia (HR 0.91, CI95% 0.68–1.21). Only for lung cancer was the association significant. Processed carrots exhibited no effect. The preventive effect could be due to the polyacetylenic compounds falcarinol and falcarindiol in carrots, whereas carotene may not have an effect. The polyacetylenes are inactivated by heating, supporting findings that only raw carrot intake has an effect.

In a Danish population of 57,053 individuals with a long follow-up, self-reported intake of raw carrots at a baseline of 2–4 carrots or more each week (>32 g/day) was associated with a 17% decrease in risk of colorectal cancer with a mean follow-up of >18 years, compared to individuals with no intake.

For urothelial cancer, a meta-analysis including six epidemiological studies consisting of four case-control and two cohort studies found that overall analysis indicated a significantly reduced risk of urothelial cancer for high intake of carrot (OR = 0.63, 95% CI 0.44–0.90), though obvious significant heterogeneity was observed among included studies (P < 0.001 for heterogeneity; I² = 79.6%).

Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2023)

A meta-analysis explored the assertion that carrots may contribute a unique protective effect compared with other common vegetables, possibly owing to their content of highly bioactive polyacetylenes. The authors concluded that indirect evidence for the cancer preventive effect of carrots in humans has reached a level where a prospective human trial is now timely.

Preclinical Evidence for Polyacetylenes

Feeding azoxymethane (AOM)-induced rats with carrots and purified FaOH have previously been shown to inhibit neoplastic transformations in the colon. FaOH and FaDOH have also shown to have a synergistic effect in vitro, resulting in a significant increased cytotoxic activity. Carrots are the main dietary source of the bioactive polyacetylenic oxylipins falcarinol (FaOH) and falcarindiol (FaDOH), which have shown anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory activity in numerous in vitro studies. Purified FaOH and FaDOH have, in recent studies in colorectal cancer (CRC)-primed rats, demonstrated an anti-neoplastic effect in a dose-dependent manner.

Beta-Carotene Supplementation and Cancer: Contradictory Clinical Trial Evidence

Three large-scale clinical trials tested the effects of supplemental beta-carotene on the risk for chronic diseases such as cancer. The populations involved were Finnish male heavy smokers (the Alpha Tocopherol Beta Carotene [ATBC] trial), male and other high-risk populations. Epidemiological studies found inverse relationships between cancer risk and β-carotene intake or blood levels. However, clinical trials failed to support those findings and β-carotene supplementation actually increased lung cancer incidence in male smokers. Two clinical trials reported an increase in lung cancer associated with supplemental β-carotene in current smokers (ATBC Cancer Prevention Study Group, 1994; Omenn et al., 1996).

The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends against beta-carotene or vitamin E supplements for the prevention of cardiovascular disease or cancer.

Evidence quality: For whole raw carrot intake and colorectal/lung cancer, evidence is strong at the epidemiological level (large prospective cohorts, meta-analyses). For isolated β-carotene supplementation and cancer prevention, clinical trial evidence is negative and in some populations actively harmful. Polyacetylene-based mechanisms are supported by preclinical data with no controlled human trials completed as of 2023.

5.2 Eye Health

Several clinical evidences show that carrots contain numerous bioactive compounds, especially carotenoids (carotenes, lutein and zeaxanthin), which are effective in the regression and treatment of eye degenerations like nyctalopia, myopia, cataracts, age-related macular diseases (AMD), and glaucoma. These carotenoids serve as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents that protect the eyes against oxidative vision loss.

Although it is known that carotenoids play an important role in the visual cycle and as antioxidants in the isolated form, no known human studies to date have uniquely assessed the impact of carrot carotenoid supplementation as a whole food in humans with and without eye conditions. The landmark Age-Related Eye Disease Studies (AREDS and AREDS2) tested antioxidant combinations in AMD patients. The AREDS studies focused on people with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) — a disease that takes away the detail and color at the center of vision. The studies concluded that patients with moderate and advanced AMD could benefit from antioxidant supplements.

Evidence quality: The role of β-carotene as a precursor to vitamin A (and thereby in preventing night blindness/nyctalopia from vitamin A deficiency) is firmly established. The role of carrot-derived lutein and zeaxanthin in AMD is biologically plausible and supported by isolated-nutrient supplementation trials, but human studies using whole carrot as the intervention are absent. Evidence for other eye conditions is largely observational or in vitro.

5.3 Cardiovascular Health

Population research suggests that people who regularly eat carotenoid-rich vegetables, including carrots, tend to have lower rates of cardiovascular disease over time, although these studies cannot prove cause and effect. β-carotene also plays a role in stimulating lipid catabolism, which metabolizes lipids, which is one of the atherosclerotic factors of cardiovascular disease.

A meta-analysis demonstrated a small but significant increase in all-cause mortality and cardiovascular death for the beta-carotene arm over placebo, whereas other studies reported no such effects nor any benefits of beta-carotene supplementation against cardiovascular disease or its risk factors.

Evidence quality: Observational evidence associating dietary carrot/carotenoid intake with cardiovascular protection is consistent but cannot establish causation. Isolated β-carotene supplementation trials have not shown cardiovascular benefit and in some populations have shown harm. The USPSTF specifically recommends against supplemental β-carotene for cardiovascular prevention.

5.4 Antioxidant Status and DNA Protection

A study involving smokers showed that supplementation with carrot juice significantly decreased lymphocyte DNA damage and increased the plasma antioxidant levels. Decreased deoxyribonucleic acid strand breaks were observed when 22 mg/day of β-carotene was administered as carrot juice. A study of breast cancer survivors showed that daily intake of fresh carrot juice led to a significant increase in the plasma carotenoid levels, which are associated with a reduced risk of cancer recurrence.

Evidence quality: Preliminary to moderate. Human studies on surrogate markers (plasma antioxidants, DNA strand breaks) are positive but small-scale. No large, randomized controlled trials on hard clinical endpoints using carrot juice as the intervention have been published.

5.5 Type 2 Diabetes and Metabolic Effects

In a double-blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover clinical trial, adult individuals (35–70 years) in Iran, when supplemented with β-carotene fortified in a symbiotic food containing 0.05 g of β-carotene (three times a day for six weeks), presented improved insulin metabolism and reduced insulin resistance. Such effects were attributed to a possible impact on genic expression that resulted in β-carotene inhibiting the production of free radicals and preserving the receptors of insulin. The daily consumption of carotenoids has also been shown to be effective in reducing the incidence of type 2 diabetes mellitus over long periods of time.

Evidence quality: Preliminary. A small number of human clinical trials with modest sample sizes. The use of β-carotene within a complex food matrix (symbiotic food) limits attribution of effects specifically to the β-carotene. Further randomized controlled trials on carrot-specific intervention are needed.

5.6 Anti-inflammatory Activity

A study was designed to test whether oral intake of carrot juice containing falcarinol and falcarindiol affects the activity of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes and the secretion of inflammatory cytokines in human blood. Carrot juice (500 mL) was administered orally to healthy volunteers, and blood samples were drawn before and 1 hour after juice intake at the time point when peak concentrations of falcarinol and falcarindiol have been shown in the blood. These results support the hypothesis that falcarinol may have a role as a dietary immunosuppressant in patients with inflammatory gastrointestinal as well as other inflammatory disorders that may be alleviated by increasing consumption of carrot or other falcarinol-containing food sources.

Evidence quality: Early-stage human evidence (ex vivo, healthy volunteers only). Animal and in vitro evidence is more extensive. Controlled clinical trials in patient populations are lacking.

5.7 Bioavailability: Raw Carrot vs. Carrot Juice

A randomized controlled crossover trial was conducted with 16 healthy adults. The participants consumed 25 mg of β-carotene from raw carrots or fresh carrot juice. Blood samples were collected at baseline and at multiple timepoints post-consumption. The carrot juice group exhibited 2.33 times higher peak plasma concentrations 1.5 h post-consumption than those in the raw carrot group. The area under the curve for β-carotene absorption was 2.09 times greater in the carrot juice group than in the raw carrot group.

Of the factors that affect carotenoid bioavailability, the food matrix effects on carotenoid absorption are generally the most critical. The absorption of β-carotene supplements that are solubilized with emulsifiers and protected by antioxidants can be 70% or more. In contrast, less than 5% bioavailability of carotenes has been reported from raw foods such as carrots. Some fat is needed so that beta-carotene can be absorbed into the body.

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6. Body Systems and Health Areas of Association

• Immune system: One of the potentials of carrots to maintain optimum health status is by regulating immune response; the proposed immunomodulatory mechanisms involve β-carotene and other bioactive compounds such as phenolic acid, flavonoid, polyacetylene, and ascorbic acid via anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and overall (innate and adaptive) immune response modulation.
• Visual system: β-carotene's role as provitamin A is foundational for retinal integrity and prevention of night blindness; lutein and zeaxanthin accumulate in the macula.
• Gastrointestinal tract: Carrot contains other potentially bioactive phytochemicals including carotenoids, phenolics, polyacetylenes, isocoumarins, terpenes, and sesquiterpenes, many of which have been extensively investigated for potential therapeutic properties against a wide range of diseases including cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, anaemia, colitis, ocular diseases, and obesity.
• Cardiovascular system: Antioxidant carotenoids and dietary fiber are associated with cardioprotective effects in observational studies.
• Endocrine / metabolic: β-carotene has demonstrated effects on insulin sensitivity in clinical trials; carotenoid intake has been inversely associated with type 2 diabetes incidence.
• Urological: Traditional diuretic and antilithic uses; meta-analysis data associates higher carrot intake with lower urothelial cancer risk.

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7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

There is no established standardized therapeutic dose for whole carrot or carrot extract as a supplement. The following dosages appear in cited scientific studies:

• Raw carrot (cohort studies): Self-reported intake of raw carrots at a baseline of 2–4 carrots or more each week (>32 g/day) was associated with a 17% decrease in risk of colorectal cancer.
• Carrot juice (anti-inflammatory human study): 500 mL of carrot juice was administered orally to healthy volunteers.
• β-carotene from carrot juice (DNA protection): 22 mg/day of β-carotene administered as carrot juice was associated with decreased DNA strand breaks.
• β-carotene (bioavailability crossover study): Participants consumed 25 mg of β-carotene from raw carrots or fresh carrot juice.
• β-carotene supplement (carotenodermia study): 30 mg or 12 mg purified beta-carotene supplement, or 272 g cooked carrots, were used across six treatment groups over 42 days.
• β-carotene (diabetic crossover trial): 0.05 g of β-carotene fortified in a symbiotic food, three times a day for six weeks, was used in adult individuals aged 35–70 years.
• Freeze-dried carrot (falcarinol pharmacokinetics): 30 g of freeze-dried carrot diluted in 500 mL tap water resulted in a peak concentration of 4.0 ng FaOH per mL serum 1 hour after intake.
• Falcarinol + falcarindiol (animal study): Twenty rats received rat diet containing 7 μg FaOH per g feed and 7 μg FaDOH per g feed.

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8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

Carotenodermia

No adverse effects other than carotenodermia have been reported from the consumption of β-carotene or other carotenoids in food. Carotenodermia is a harmless but clearly documented biological effect of high carotenoid intake. In a European multicenter intervention trial with β-carotene, lycopene, or lutein (15 mg/day for 4 months), carotenodermia was reported by 95% of participants supplemented with α- and β-carotene. In a controlled study, definite carotenodermia was observed only in the five subjects who took 30 mg of purified beta-carotene daily. Carotenodermia was first noted between 25 and 42 days after supplementation and was observed only after plasma total carotenoid levels exceeded 4.0 mg/L. This condition is reversible upon reduction of intake.

Beta-Carotene Supplementation in Smokers: A Critical Safety Signal

Landmark studies (ATBC, CARET) revealed that supplementation above 20 mg/day significantly increases lung cancer and cardiovascular mortality risk in smokers and asbestos-exposed individuals. For current and former smokers and those with asbestos exposure, the primary risk is an increased chance of developing lung cancer. This risk is specifically tied to high-dose, long-term supplementation. These risks are associated with high-dose supplements, not with the carotenoids naturally present in a healthy diet.

Reproductive Toxicity

An excess intake of vitamin A or synthesized retinoids has been associated with birth defects such as eye, lung, and heart deformities, and pregnant women are advised not to take high doses of supplemental vitamin A. However, the beta-carotene precursor for vitamin A has not been associated with reproductive toxicity, even at large doses of 20 to 30 mg per day.

Alcohol Interaction

Hepatotoxic effects of ethanol may be potentiated by high doses of beta-carotene. A large-scale cohort study found that alcohol consumption has a negative effect on the chemopreventive activity of beta-carotene.

Rare Adverse Events

Carotenemia and double phytobezoars were reported in a 47-year-old woman who experienced severe epigastric pain, vomiting, and obstipation after adhering to a strict vegetable-based diet for several years consuming more than 5 carrots daily. Symptoms resolved after surgical removal of bezoars. This is an exceedingly rare event associated with extraordinary consumption levels.

Mortality Signal from Beta-Carotene Supplementation

A meta-analysis demonstrated a small but significant increase in all-cause mortality and cardiovascular death for the beta-carotene arm over placebo, whereas other studies reported no such effects nor any benefits of beta-carotene supplementation against cardiovascular disease or its risk factors. Furthermore, long-term supplementation may not have a meaningful effect on total or cancer mortality more than a decade after supplementation ends.

Bioavailability Interactions with Diet Composition

Of the factors that affect carotenoid bioavailability, the food matrix effects on carotenoid absorption are generally the most critical. Fat co-ingestion substantially increases β-carotene absorption from carrot, while raw, unprocessed carrot has very low inherent bioavailability of carotenoids. The polyacetylenes falcarinol and falcarindiol are inactivated by heating, meaning cooking eliminates this specific class of bioactive compounds.

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