Mango

Mango (Mangifera indica L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Names, and Common Forms

Mangifera indica (family Anacardiaceae), commonly known as mango, is a pharmacologically, ethnomedically, and phytochemically diverse plant. Also known regionally as aam, it belongs to the genus Mangifera, which consists of about 30 species of tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The species was formally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.

Mango is an evergreen tree with a great many traditional medicinal resources apart from its famous fruits. Mangoes are native to South and Southeast Asia, and in 2018, global production of mangoes was reported at 55.4 million tonnes. Its broader native range extends from Pakistan to Malesia in subtropical and tropical climates, with its origin point considered to be around Western Indo-Burma.

The species has been cultivated in India for more than 4,000 years, and now exists in more than 1,000 cultivars (mostly clones) across all countries of the tropics.

The name "mango" in English and Spanish has a traceable etymological lineage. "Manna," the Malayalam word for the fruit, was adopted as "Manga" by the Portuguese, who traveled to Kerala in 1498 for the spice trade; "Mango" is most likely derived from this.

Plant Parts Used and Common Forms / Preparations

Various parts of the M. indica tree have been used in traditional medicine for the treatment of different ailments, with reported bioactive phytochemical constituents including polyphenols, terpenes, sterols, carotenoids, vitamins, and amino acids. The major plant parts used medicinally and as dietary supplements include:

• Fresh and dried fruit pulp: Consumed directly or processed into juice, freeze-dried powder, and standardized extracts.
• Peel: A rich polyphenol source processed into dried powder, standardized extracts, or cosmetic preparations.
• Leaves: Long used in traditional medicine in China, India, and Africa — typically as dried leaves or powder for herbal teas.
• Stem bark: In Cuba, an aqueous extract is obtained from the stem bark of M. indica (MSBE), which is the active pharmaceutical ingredient of Vimang formulations, used for treatment of a variety of diseases and pathological states.
• Seed kernel / Mango butter: Also known as mango kernel butter or mango seed butter, mango butter is a moisturizing ingredient rich in fatty acids derived from the seed of the mango fruit.
• Mangiferin isolate: The primary xanthone constituent is available as an isolated supplement and used in research.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

South Asian (Ayurvedic) Tradition

Mangifera indica has been an important herb in the Ayurvedic and indigenous medical systems for over 4,000 years. It finds mention in Sanskrit literature archives dating back almost 6,000 years, including the Ramayana.

In the Ayurvedic framework, varied medicinal properties are attributed to different parts of the mango tree, including antidiabetic, anti-oxidant, anti-viral, cardiotonic, hypotensive, and anti-inflammatory properties. Ayurvedic texts describe mango as tridosha-hara (balancing all three doshas) when used appropriately.

In classical Ayurvedic practice, different preparations were made from different parts of the plant:

• Mango seed preparations, classified as kashaya (astringent) and slightly sour and sweet, were indicated for vomiting (Chardi), diarrhea and dysentery (Atisara), and burning sensation in the chest (Hrudayadaha). The seed kernel was also considered absorbent and useful in diarrhea and IBS.
• Oil prepared from mango was classified as astringent, sweet, and bitter, and applied externally during excessive bleeding, injury, and wounds — with bark, flower, leaves, and seed kernel dry powders applied topically owing to astringent properties believed to stop bleeding and heal wounds quickly.
• For stomach pain, diarrhea, and vomiting, 10 fresh soft leaves of mango were prepared with 1–2 black pepper seeds into a paste with water and consumed.

Historically, ancient Indian kings planted mango trees in gardens and along roadsides, as the trees were considered symbols of prosperity. Native to Asia, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, mango trees have been growing wild since ancient times and are considered sacred in Hinduism and Buddhism, appearing in ancient religious texts and historical documents.

Traditional Chinese Medicine

Mango leaves were integral to Indian Ayurvedic medicine and were also used in traditional Chinese medicine. Although mango leaves have long been used in traditional medicine in China, India, and Africa — typically as dried leaves or powder for herbal teas — scientific interest in their application has grown in recent years.

Cuban / Caribbean Tradition and Vimang

Mango is widely used in traditional medicine in different regions of the world. In Cuba, aqueous extract is obtained from the stem bark (MSBE), which is the active pharmaceutical ingredient of Vimang formulations, used for treatment of a variety of diseases and pathological states. Ethnomedical reports show welfare improvement in cancer patients after MSBE exposure, including for those undergoing chemotherapy and radiotherapy.

West African and Nigerian Ethnomedicine

Bark, leaves, roots, fruits, and flowers of M. indica have been used in traditional medicine across different countries for the treatment of various diseases and conditions, with ethnomedicinal uses summarized in diverse regional surveys. Aqueous decoction of mango stem bark has been traditionally used for the treatment of menorrhagia, scabies, diarrhea, syphilis, diabetes, cutaneous infection, and anemia.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

A large variety of chemical compounds have been reported in M. indica. Among these, polyphenols (flavonoids, xanthones, and phenolic acids) are the most abundant compound types. Mangiferin, gallic acid, catechins, quercetin, kaempferol, protocatechuic acid, ellagic acids, propyl and methyl gallate, rhamnetin, and anthocyanins are the major polyphenolic compounds.

Mangiferin

Six xanthone derivatives have been identified in mango (mangiferin, dimethyl mangiferin, homomangiferin, mangiferin gallate, isomangiferin, and isomangiferin gallate); among this group, mangiferin (C2-β-D-glucopyranosyl-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone), a C-glucosyl xanthone, is broadly distributed in higher plants, with demonstrated pharmacological and antioxidant activities. Mangiferin can be obtained from the bark, fruits, roots, and leaves of Mangifera indica L.

Mangiferin is one of the major phenolic components in mango pulp (around 4.4 mg/kg), seed kernel (42 mg/kg), mango peel (1,690 mg/kg), and stem bark (71.4 g/kg).

Mangiferin, being a polyphenolic antioxidant and a glucosyl xanthone, has demonstrated strong antioxidant, anti–lipid peroxidation, immunomodulatory, cardiotonic, hypotensive, wound-healing, antidegenerative, and antidiabetic activities.

A notable pharmacokinetic limitation has been identified: mangiferin demonstrates poor solubility (0.111 mg/mL) and extremely low oral bioavailability (1.2%). Like other flavonoids, particularly xanthones, mangiferin exhibits inherently low lipophilicity due to its chemical structure and extensive glycosidic bonding. These structural characteristics also contribute to poor intestinal membrane permeability and limited absorption following oral administration. Experimental data confirm that, despite a wide range of pharmacological activity, mangiferin has low solubility, transmembrane permeability, and bioavailability, which limit its clinical development and use.

Gallotannins and Gallic Acid

The anti-inflammatory activities of gallotannins and their metabolites, gallic acid and 4-O-methylgallic acid, are mediated via the reduction in proinflammatory cytokines, nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1). Gallotannins may also modulate the immune system of the gastrointestinal tract via production of metabolites and modulation of the intestinal microbiome.

Stem Bark Extract (MSBE) Phytochemistry

Phytochemical investigation of mango stem bark extract has led to the isolation of seven phenolic constituents: mangiferin, gallic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid methyl ester, gallic acid propyl ester, (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, benzoic acid, and benzoic acid propyl ester. The extract also contains triterpenes, phytosterols, fatty acids, and microelements.

Seed Kernel Phytochemistry

The seed kernel is especially rich in gallic acid, gallotannins, catechins, and smaller amounts of mangiferin. The seed kernel contains approximately 8.5% protein and has been reported as effective against helminthiasis and chronic diarrhea in traditional use.

Additional Phytochemical Classes

Amino acids identified in mango include threonine, valine, alanine, and tryptophan. Polyphenols and phenolic acids include gallic acid, mangiferin, quercetin, and ellagic acid. Triterpenes and terpenoids include β-pinene, nerol, limonene, α-phellandrene, and α-pinene.

Mango contains a combination of polyphenols and xanthones that act as antioxidants, and has a notably higher level of carotenoids, particularly β-carotene, than many other fruits.

Established Mechanisms of Action

Mangiferin has been described as able to activate anticancer, antimicrobial, antiatherosclerotic, antiallergenic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and immunomodulatory activities.

Many pharmacological activities — including antioxidant, radioprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antidiabetic, lipolytic, antibone resorption, monoamine oxidase-inhibiting, antimicrobial, and antiparasitic — have been reported for mangiferin.

In animal studies examining combinations with standard antidiabetic drugs, the combination of mangiferin with metformin acted via an insulin-dependent (Akt) pathway, whereas the combination of mangiferin with gliclazide was insulin independent (AMPK pathway).

Laboratory research has confirmed that mangiferin lowered triglycerides and free fatty acids in hyperlipidemic hamsters, rats, and HepG2 cell models, possibly through modulation of key enzyme expression involved in inhibiting lipogenesis and promoting fatty acid oxidation in the liver.

4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

4.1 Glycemic Control and Diabetes

Freeze-dried mango pulp in obese adults (pilot study): A pilot study examined the effects of freeze-dried mango (Mangifera indica L.) supplementation on anthropometrics, body composition, and biochemical parameters in obese individuals. Twenty obese adults (11 males and 9 females) aged 20–50 years received 10 g/day of ground freeze-dried mango pulp for 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, mango supplementation significantly reduced blood glucose in both male (−4.45 mg/dL, P = 0.018) and female (−3.56 mg/dL, P = 0.003) participants. However, there were no significant changes in body weight or composition in either gender. These findings indicate that regular consumption of freeze-dried mango by obese individuals does not negatively impact body weight but provides a positive effect on fasting blood glucose. This study was small and uncontrolled; the authors called for larger, longer trials.

Fresh mango vs. isocaloric cookies (crossover, 12 weeks): In a randomized crossover design, 27 overweight and obese adults (11 females, 16 males, mean age 26 ± 8.1 years) consumed 100 kcal of fresh mangos (166 g) or isocaloric low-fat cookies daily for 12 weeks. Mango consumption improved certain chronic disease risk factors, including reductions in fasting glucose and inflammation, while lipid profiles and anthropometric measurements were not affected. The authors concluded that daily mango consumption may improve certain risk factors associated with overweight and obesity.

Postprandial glucose response (crossover study): In a crossover study design (n = 34, healthy weight), postprandial glucose concentrations were significantly reduced after consuming fresh or dried mango compared to white bread (p < 0.05).

Mango consumption and insulin sensitivity (RCT, 2025): A human clinical study investigated the effect of regular mango intake on inflammation and insulin sensitivity in participants with overweight/obesity and chronic low-grade inflammation. A randomized, controlled, two-arm parallel design was used, with a 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test administered before and after 4 weeks of mango or control product intake (1 cup, twice a day). Forty-eight adults (mean age 37.6 ± 2.8 years, BMI 30.5 ± 4.1 kg/m²) completed the study. Markers of inflammation (IL-6, TNFα, hs-CRP) were not significantly different at the end of 4 weeks (p > 0.05). The authors noted that there are limited data from controlled chronic feeding studies with mango, and none have previously assessed peripheral insulin sensitivity.

Mangiferin isolate supplementation (RCT, lipids): A double-blind randomized controlled trial evaluated the effects of mangiferin on serum lipid profiles in overweight patients with hyperlipidemia (serum triglyceride ≥ 1.70 mmol/L, total cholesterol ≥ 5.2 mmol/L). Participants were randomly allocated to receive mangiferin (150 mg/day) or identical placebo for 12 weeks. A total of 97 participants completed the trial. Compared with the placebo control, mangiferin supplementation significantly decreased the serum levels of triglycerides and free fatty acids, and the insulin resistance index.

Evidence strength: Overall, human clinical evidence for glycemic effects is preliminary but consistently directional. The trials are small, heterogeneous in methodology, and of short duration. Larger, longer, and more rigorously controlled RCTs are needed before definitive clinical conclusions can be drawn. Although mango supplementation did not induce weight loss, findings indicate positive effects on blood glucose in obese adults; further clinical trials with larger sample sizes and longer duration are necessary.

4.2 Cardiovascular Risk and Lipid Profiles

Human clinical investigations have shown that mango supplementation lowers blood glucose in obese people, and mangiferin from mango fruits and their metabolites has been demonstrated to raise HDL levels and lower triglyceride and free fatty acid levels in overweight people with hyperglycemia.

The mangiferin RCT described in Section 4.1 (150 mg/day for 12 weeks, n=97) specifically targeted lipid endpoints. Animal studies have shown that mangiferin may lower triglycerides and total cholesterol in diabetic rats, and laboratory research has confirmed that mangiferin lowers triglycerides and free fatty acids in hyperlipidemic hamsters, rats, and HepG2 cell models, likely through modulation of lipogenesis and fatty acid oxidation in the liver. The one published human RCT showing lipid effects used an isolated mangiferin supplement, not whole mango fruit, limiting direct extrapolation to dietary mango.

Evidence strength: One well-designed RCT of mangiferin isolate shows significant lipid-lowering effects at 150 mg/day over 12 weeks. Whole fruit studies are insufficiently powered or controlled to confirm comparable effects. The mechanistic basis is plausible but needs replication in humans.

4.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Mango polyphenols have been shown to exhibit various pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, gastroprotective, immunomodulatory, and cancer-cytotoxic effects.

Exercise-induced inflammation (crossover RCT, n=22): In a randomized crossover clinical trial with 22 trained male and female cyclists, a 2-week intake of 330 g per day of mangoes increased urine concentrations of three targeted gallotannin-related gut-derived phenolics. Although untested within an exercise context prior to this study, the data support the hypothesis that intake of mangoes (330 g/day or approximately two cups/day for two weeks) has the potential to counter post-exercise increases in pro-inflammatory oxylipins in trained cyclists.

Obese adults supplementation study: Mango fruit is a good source of dietary fiber and contains several bioactive compounds and antioxidant nutrients, such as polyphenols (e.g., mangiferin), carotenoids, and ascorbic acid, that have exhibited anti-inflammatory and/or antidiabetic properties in human and/or animal models. A human pilot study reported that mango powder supplementation lowered blood glucose in obese individuals. However, a subsequent 12-week study using freeze-dried mango daily in obese adults found that inflammatory markers did not reach statistical significance.

Evidence strength: Evidence for anti-inflammatory effects of mango in humans is mixed and preliminary. Effects on some biomarkers have been observed in small studies, but these are inconsistent across trials and populations. Mechanistic data from cell and animal studies are more robust than clinical evidence.

4.4 Gastrointestinal Health

In a human clinical pilot study, 4-week consumption of mango fruit (300 g) significantly improved the status of constipation (stool frequency, consistency, and shape) and increased gastrin levels and intestinal valeric acid, while lowering endotoxin and IL-6 in comparison to an equivalent amount of dietary fiber.

These studies show that mango polyphenols have the potential to maintain and improve intestinal health and integrity.

A registered clinical trial (NCT02227602) investigated the clinical relevance of mango as an adjuvant treatment to conventional therapy in inflammatory bowel disease, comparing the effects of mango with common drug treatment in mild-to-moderate IBD versus drug treatment alone. Findings from this trial were not yet available in the searches conducted for this article.

Evidence strength: The constipation study is promising but represents a single small pilot. Larger, randomized, controlled trials are needed. Animal and in-vitro data on gastroprotection and mucosal protection are more extensive than human data.

4.5 Anticancer Properties

Among the compounds identified in dried mango pulp, phenolic compounds and carotenoids are notable for their in-vitro antitumoral activity, with mechanisms including induction of G2/M cell cycle arrest, modulation of autophagy, and enhancement of intracellular ROS generation.

The cytotoxic and apoptotic potential of the bark of mango varieties grown in Sri Lanka has been reported in breast (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231) and ovarian cancer (SKOV-3) cell lines. Methanolic extracts of bark of two mango varieties exerted cytotoxic and apoptotic potential in breast and ovarian cancer cells.

Various studies show that mangiferin possesses antioxidant actions, a role in treating obesity, therapeutic potential for osteoarthritis, protection of the gastrointestinal tract, an antidiabetic role, and in-vitro repressing properties on type-II 5α-reductase, as well as hepatoprotective and cardioprotective effects in rodents. Mangiferin also shows photoprotective, analgesic, neuroprotective, anti-Alzheimer, and anti-allergic potential in preclinical studies.

Evidence strength: All anticancer evidence for mango and mangiferin to date is derived from in-vitro cell-line studies and animal models. No human clinical trials of mango or mangiferin for cancer treatment or prevention have been published. This area remains entirely preclinical.

4.6 Skin and Wound Healing

Mango butter was explored as a functional, natural supplement and active skin ingredient in skin care formulations. A foot care cream was developed with mango butter to evaluate its medicinal value and protective function in skin repair. Qualitative comparison and clinical case studies were carried out, and wound healing potential was investigated on rat excision and incision wound models. Results of the clinical studies demonstrated complete repair of worn and cracked skin in human volunteers.

Also known as mango kernel butter or mango seed butter, mango butter is a moisturizing ingredient rich in fatty acids derived from the seed of the mango fruit. It is found in many skin care products, particularly those aimed at moisturizing the skin, and thanks to its rich antioxidant content and other properties, can impart a range of other benefits.

Evidence strength: Evidence for topical skin applications of mango butter is limited to small case studies and animal models. No large, randomized controlled trials of mango-based topical formulations have been conducted. Preclinical and preliminary clinical data are encouraging but insufficient for firm conclusions.

4.7 Antimicrobial Properties

The essential oil from mango leaves also possesses bacteriostatic properties and contains several antimicrobial constituents such as gurjunene, trans-caryophyllene, humulene, selinene, and camphor. Evidence in this area is derived predominantly from in-vitro studies; there are no published human clinical trials of mango extracts as antimicrobials.

4.8 Neuroprotective Effects

Neuroprotective efficacy of mangiferin in doxorubicin-induced rats has been studied, with evidence confined to preclinical animal models. Mangiferin shows neuroprotective and anti-Alzheimer potential in preclinical data, but no human clinical trials have been conducted in this area.

5. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with Mangifera indica

Documented pharmacological effects include antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, immunomodulatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, reproductive, dermatological, cardiovascular, hypolipidemic, anti-obesity, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, CNS and neuroprotective, gastrointestinal, anti-anemic, and anti-snake venom activity — though the evidence strength varies greatly between these areas, as detailed above. Key body systems include:

• Metabolic / Endocrine System: Glycemic regulation, insulin sensitivity, lipid metabolism.
• Cardiovascular System: Triglyceride and free fatty acid reduction, cardiotonic effects attributed to mangiferin.
• Gastrointestinal System: Constipation relief, gastroprotection, mucosal integrity, potential IBD adjuvant therapy.
• Immune System: Immunomodulatory effects via NF-κB pathway modulation, cytokine regulation.
• Integumentary System (Skin): Wound healing, moisturization, anti-acne, antioxidant protection via topical applications of mango butter and extracts.
• Central Nervous System: Neuroprotective effects observed in preclinical models only.
• Oncology: In-vitro cytotoxic and apoptotic effects observed; no clinical evidence.

6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

Dosages below are reported exactly as described in the cited primary sources and should not be interpreted as established therapeutic recommendations.

• Freeze-dried mango pulp powder (oral): 10 g/day for 12 weeks in a pilot study of 20 obese adults.
• Fresh mango fruit (oral): 100 kcal (approximately 166 g) of fresh mango daily for 12 weeks in a crossover trial of 27 overweight/obese adults.
• Fresh mango (anti-inflammatory crossover trial): 330 g mango/day with 0.5 L water for 2 weeks, followed by a 2.25-hour cycling bout challenge in 22 cyclists.
• Fresh mango (insulin sensitivity RCT): 1 cup twice per day for 4 weeks in a randomized controlled two-arm parallel design.
• Mango fruit for constipation: 300 g of mango fruit consumed over 4 weeks in a human pilot study.
• Isolated mangiferin supplement (oral): 150 mg/day for 12 weeks in a double-blind RCT of overweight hyperlipidemic patients. A single dose of 900 mg oral mangiferin in humans did not produce any side effects or changes in clinical symptoms in one prior study.
• Mango butter (topical): An oil-in-water emulsion system containing 25% w/w of mango butter was formulated in one studied foot care cream.

7. Safety Considerations and Notable Interactions

General Tolerability of Whole Mango

A single oral dose of mangiferin at 900 mg in humans did not produce any side effects or changes in clinical symptoms and blood biochemical variables in one published study. No side effects were observed during the 12-week mangiferin RCT at 150 mg/day.

Contact Dermatitis and Allergic Reactions

Mangoes are consumed almost everywhere in the world; nevertheless, few reports of hypersensitivity reactions — both immediate and delayed — have been published. Mango allergy may occur as type I hypersensitivity reactions ranging from erythema, hives, angioedema, wheezing, or oral allergy syndrome to severe anaphylactic reactions, or as type IV hypersensitivity reaction such as contact dermatitis. The latter appears to be more prevalent.

A review of the literature found 12 case reports and four case series with a total of 37 patients. Only seven of these cases were reported in patients from mango-cultivating countries; the other 30 were from countries where mango cultivation does not occur, and 26 were from countries where poison ivy/oak are commonly found.

Contact dermatitis may occur on the first exposure to mango due to previous sensitization to urushiol-containing plants. Cross-sensitization of mango with poison ivy/oak is known to be secondary to a superposition of urushiol antigen and 5-resorcinol, primarily found in mango peels.

Mango fruit is frequently consumed, but mango-induced contact dermatitis — the main hypersensitivity reaction — is rare.

Cytochrome P450 Enzyme Interactions

In addition to diverse health benefits, polyphenols have been described to interact with intestinal and hepatic enzyme systems. Specifically, effects on the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme system and how these interactions affect xenobiotic metabolism are of particular concern, although evidence is limited.

Bioavailability Limitations

Experimental and in-vivo data confirm that, despite a wide range of pharmacological activity, mangiferin has low solubility, transmembrane permeability, and bioavailability, which limit its clinical development and use.

Regulatory and Monograph Status

M. indica materials are not included in the readily available WHO monographs or the West African and African pharmacopoeias. Based on the known properties of mangiferin, phytomedicines should be adequately standardized regarding this active compound. M. indica has been used successfully in Ayurvedic medicine for centuries; however, more clinical trials are needed to support its therapeutic use.

Cultivar-Related Variability

The quantities of different polyphenols in mango depend on the part and variety of mango, which has significant implications for standardization of extracts and reproducibility of clinical effects. Despite phytochemical variation among M. indica cultivars, there are no monographs to guide the cultivation, processing, and authentication of the materials.

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