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Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is a pseudocereal — it produces seeds consumed like cereal grains, but the plant is not a member of the grass family. Like its close relative quinoa, amaranth belongs to the Amaranthaceae family, making it more closely related to spinach, beets, and chard than to wheat or rice.

There are roughly 60 species of amaranth, but three are primarily cultivated for grain production: Amaranthus caudatus (love-lies-bleeding), Amaranthus cruentus, and Amaranthus hypochondriacus. Additional species of ethnomedicinal and culinary importance include Amaranthus tricolor, Amaranthus viridis, Amaranthus hybridus, Amaranthus spinosus, and Amaranthus blitum.

Amaranth is a pseudo-cereal crop with a dual character, combining the features of food and health-promoting product. The amaranth grains are tiny, only a millimeter in diameter, round to oval, usually off-white to brown in color, and one gram of seeds holds about 1,000–3,000 seeds.

Common Forms and Preparations

• Whole grain seeds: The grains or seeds are the most popular commercial form.
• Flour: Amaranth flour has received considerable attention as an interesting source for the formulation of gluten-free products due to its high nutritional value.
• Oil: Amaranth oil is the main plant source of squalene; its content in amaranth oil can vary from 3% to 8%.
• Popped/puffed grain: In ceremonies, the seed would be heated and popped like tiny popcorn — a preparation that persists into modern use.
• Leaves: The amaranth leaf is used to make medicine, while the grain is used in food for its fiber and protein content.
• Protein concentrate: The production of protein concentrate from amaranth flour includes preliminary enzymatic hydrolysis, extraction of the resulting mixture, protein precipitation, microfiltration, and freeze-drying.
• Functional food products: High-energy snack bars, cereals (e.g., muesli), plant protein powders, and gluten-free flours are being developed from amaranths as a response to the growing demand for gluten-free, plant-based, high-protein products.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Mesoamerican Civilizations

Amaranth cultivation in Mesoamerica dates back at least 6,000 to 8,000 years, with evidence of its use throughout what is now Mexico, Guatemala, and the southwestern United States. For the Aztec empire, amaranth was not merely a food but a foundation of civilization, economy, and religion. The Aztecs called it huauhtli, and it ranked alongside maize and beans as one of their three primary crops.

In pre-Hispanic times, amaranth was cultivated by the Aztec and their tributary communities in a quantity very similar to maize. Known to the Aztecs as huāuhtli, amaranth is thought to have represented up to 80% of their energy consumption before the Spanish conquest.

The Aztec capital Tenochtitlan received an estimated 20,000 tons of amaranth annually as tribute from conquered provinces. In sheer volume, amaranth tribute nearly equaled that of maize.

Amaranthus held profound cultural and spiritual significance among the Aztecs and other Mesoamerican peoples. Known as the "grain of the gods," it symbolized divine flesh, complementing maize, which represented the human body. The Aztecs consumed tzoalli, a dough made from ground amaranth, toasted corn, and mixed with maguey honey. They would shape this dough into figures representing their gods, such as Tláloc, Quetzalcóatl, or Tezcatlipoca, and then break and eat these figures during rituals.

Amaranthus was a staple ingredient in tamales, tortillas, sauces, and drinks, providing sustenance to soldiers, breastfeeding mothers, and entire communities.

Spanish Conquest and Suppression

During the colonial era, Spanish colonizers viewed rituals utilizing Amaranthus — particularly those involving blood and symbolic flesh — as a threat to Catholic teaching and outlawed its cultivation and destroyed its fields across Mexico and Peru. This act severed access to a major source of nutrition and disrupted spiritual practices. However, Amaranthus survived in small Indigenous communities, where it was cultivated and used locally, establishing roots for what today is a global crop, consumed for its nutritional value.

Research on grain amaranth began in the United States in the 1970s. By the end of the 1970s, a few thousand acres were being cultivated there, and continue to be cultivated.

Traditional Use in Asia and India

It is known since ancient times, in countries such as India, China, and Thailand, that amaranth extracts have been used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases and conditions, such as urinary tract infections, diarrhea, pain, respiratory disorders, diabetes, and their use as diuretics.

In the Indian traditional system of medicine (Ayurveda), the plant is used as a febrifuge (medicine that reduces fever), laxative, and effective diuretic. Moreover, beyond its use in food preparation, it is a popular medicinal plant used to treat bronchitis, biliousness, galactagogue (to stimulate breast milk production), hematinic properties, stomach complaints, nausea, flatulence, anorexia, blood diseases, leprosy, piles, and for the healing of wounds and rheumatism.

The ethnomedicinal uses of A. spinosus include treating skin issues, urinary tract infections, rheumatic problems, and snakebites, among others.

Documented Traditional Medicinal Uses Across Cultures

According to PDR for Herbal Medicines, amaranth has been used for the treatment of diarrhea, ulcers, and in cases of pharyngitis. There are also reports on the use of the plant in excessive menstruation, skin problems such as acne and eczema, and as a mouthwash for sore mouths.

Its notable therapeutic properties have supported traditional uses in managing conditions such as diarrhea, heavy menstrual bleeding, and intestinal bleeding.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Macronutrient Composition

Amaranth grain is characterized by high levels of starch, proteins, minerals, and dietary fiber.

Protein: Amaranthus contains a protein composition of between 12.5% and 17.6%. It has a methionine content of 15.8 milligrams per gram of total protein and a lysine value of 55.8 milligrams per gram of total protein. According to the FAO, amaranth grain as a source of protein is "superior in content and quality to traditional cereals." Unlike traditional cereals, where prolamins and glutelins dominate the protein composition, the proteins of pseudocereals like amaranth primarily consist of albumins and globulins.

Amaranth protein contains amino acids essential for normal human growth, including lysine, tryptophan, and small amounts of other amino acids such as threonine, leucine, valine, and isoleucine. The true digestibility of amaranth protein concentrate determined in vivo was 97.6 ± 0.3%.

Starch and carbohydrates: Amaranth seeds contain carbohydrates primarily in the form of starch with a content of about 48% to 69% (mainly in the form of amylopectin), out of a total polysaccharide content of 50 to 60%. Sucrose is the main sugar in amaranth.

Fiber: The grains are a rich source of soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. Per 100 g, amaranth provides 6.7 g or approximately 17% of the daily requirement of fiber.

Lipids: The lipid profile of amaranth grain includes saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, triglycerides, sterols, phospholipids, glycolipids, and tocopherols. According to scientific publications, linoleic acid makes up more than 50% of the total fatty acids in amaranth oil: oleic — more than 25%, palmitic — approximately 20%, and α-linolenic — approximately 1%.

Bioactive Phytochemicals

Squalene: Squalene, an intermediate compound in cholesterol biosynthesis, is considered the most important biologically active substance in amaranth. Squalene is effectively used for the prevention and dietary therapy of lipid metabolism disorders. Amaranth oil is the main plant source of squalene; its content in amaranth oil can vary from 3% to 8%.

Tocopherols and tocotrienols: Tocopherols and tocotrienols exhibit antioxidant properties and serve critical biological functions in both plant cells and the human body. They are widely used for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, cancer, atherosclerosis, hyperlipidemia, and osteoporosis. Lipid analysis has revealed substantial phytosterols (dominated by β-sitosterol) and varying tocopherol isomers, with certain cultivars displaying notably high δ-tocopherol.

Phenolic compounds and flavonoids: Ferulic acid and flavonoids (kaempferol, rutin, and quercetin) in combination with lipophilic components (squalene, tocopherols, and other non-saponifiable substances) make a significant contribution to the neutralization of free radicals. The main antioxidant component identified is the polyphenolic flavonoid rutin, a powerful antioxidant, antimicrobial, and fungicide. The levels of rutin in different parts of the amaranth plant have been determined, and values of approximately 0.08 g/kg of seeds and 24.5 g/kg of dry leaves have been reported; the species that contain more rutin are A. hybridus and A. cruentus.

Betalains: Betalains have recently been recognized as highly bioactive natural compounds with potential human health benefits. Betalains, along with flavonoids, saponins, and phenolic compounds, contribute to amaranth's medicinal properties and potential health benefits.

Bioactive peptides: Six bioactive peptides have been isolated and identified from amaranth, which, according to predictive models, demonstrate a high capacity to inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity, suggesting potential hypotensive effects. Certain amaranth peptides are considered promising functional food ingredients for the prevention and comprehensive treatment of conditions such as diabetes, inflammatory bowel diseases, hypercholesterolemia, cardiovascular diseases, and obesity.

Lunasin-like peptide: Bioactive compounds such as phytol, α-tocopherol, and a lunasin-like peptide (AhLun) with potential anticancer properties have also been identified in amaranth.

Minerals: Amaranth has a rich content of the dietary minerals calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium. Mineral analyses have confirmed diverse calcium, magnesium, and iron levels across different cultivars, underscoring environmental and genetic influences.

Anti-nutritional Factors

Amaranth grain contains a unique set of phytonutrients as well as saponins, phenolic compounds (including flavonoids), phytosterols, and other compounds. To date, no antinutrient has been found at problematic levels in grain amaranth; however, oxalate has not been thoroughly studied. Dietary oxalate is a potential risk factor for kidney stone development, and its presence in food lowers calcium and magnesium availability. Plant foods with the highest oxalate content include spinach, swiss chard, amaranth, taro, sweet potatoes, and beets.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

Lipid-Lowering (Hypolipidemic) Mechanism

The hypolipemic effect of amaranth oil is associated with its significant squalene content. The mechanism of activity of squalene relies on the inhibition of HMG-CoA activity — a liver enzyme responsible for cholesterogenesis. Such activity has been demonstrated in both rat and clinical studies.

Manolio Soares and colleagues showed that proteins from the plant affect the action of a key enzyme in cholesterol biosynthesis, 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase. In one study, the effects of consumption of Amaranthus mangostanus on lipid metabolism in high-fat diet-fed mice were examined. Amaranth powder supplementation significantly reduced the levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and phospholipids in the liver of rats and also downregulated the expression of a few lipogenesis-related genes.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

Amaranth protein fractions (albumin, globulin, and glutelin) and squalene exhibit increased antioxidant activity, contributing to notable resistance to radiation and X-ray exposure. Protein fractions and peptides of amaranth formed during enzymatic hydrolysis demonstrate a high capacity for antioxidant activity due to their amino acid constitution and structural features.

Antihypertensive Mechanism

Six bioactive peptides were isolated and identified from amaranth, which, according to predictive models, demonstrate a high capacity to inhibit angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) activity, suggesting potential hypotensive effects.

Antimicrobial Mechanism

The antimicrobial activity of A. tricolor crude extract against S. aureus was assessed by disk diffusion, minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determinations, and growth curves. The mechanism of this activity was connected with cell membrane depolarization, reduction in intracellular pH, decrease in bacterial protein content, DNA cleavage, and leakage of cytoplasm.

5. Scientific Evidence by Health Area

5.1 Cardiovascular Health and Lipid Profiles

A published review summarized data regarding amaranth as a potential component of lifestyle modification to improve cardiovascular risk profiles by modifying cardiovascular risk factors such as cholesterol, diabetes, and hypertension. PubMed was searched for appropriate articles. Interventions included both human and animal studies reporting serum lipid and lipoprotein levels, and antidiabetic, antihypertensive, and antioxidant abilities. A total of 33 articles were included. Regarding hypolipidemic activity, most studies investigated the effect of intervention with amaranth in animals, and fewer studies were performed in humans.

One published human clinical study examined amaranth oil in patients with coronary heart disease and hypertension. The results of that study showed that amaranth oil can reduce the amount of cholesterol in blood serum, and it was recommended as a functional food product for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. A diet with amaranth oil may help reduce blood pressure and could serve as an effective alternative to drug therapy in people with hypertension. However, this evidence comes from a single relatively small study published in 2007. Trials in cardiovascular disease patients also showed that amaranth oil lowered blood pressure and improved lipid profiles.

In contrast, a randomized double-blind cross-over study in overweight and obese subjects found that the use of amaranth oil instead of rapeseed oil may increase cardiovascular risk in obese and overweight subjects, highlighting that effects are context-dependent and results across studies are not uniformly positive.

Despite these promising results from animal models, additional research is needed to understand how amaranth may affect cholesterol levels in humans.

Evidence strength: Preliminary and mixed. Animal studies are consistent in showing hypolipidemic effects; human evidence is limited in quantity and quality and shows conflicting results depending on the population and comparator.

5.2 Blood Glucose Regulation and Antidiabetic Effects

Recent investigations demonstrate that the phytochemicals and extracts of amaranth have beneficial effects on health, including antidiabetic potential, a decrease in plasmatic cholesterol and blood pressure, and protection from oxidative stress and inflammation.

In animal models of streptozotocin-induced diabetes, supplementation with amaranth grain or seed oil significantly improved glucose tolerance, reduced fasting blood glucose, and lowered serum and hepatic triglycerides and total cholesterol. At the preclinical level: one study explored the effects of the extract in diabetic rats. The oral administration of 400 mg/kg extract for 21 days significantly reduced serum glucose, serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, and very low-density lipoprotein.

However, the therapeutic use of amaranth extracts has not been fully explored; although there are in vivo/in vitro scientific studies and observed positive results, more information is needed to encourage clinical trials.

Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal and in vitro) evidence is reasonably consistent. Human clinical trial data specifically for glycemic outcomes are limited. A systematic review of the antidiabetic potential of amaranth (published in Journal of Medicinal Food, 2024) concluded that direct clinical trial confirmation remains needed.

5.3 Antioxidant Activity

Accumulated literature data indicate the established bioactive properties of the investigated Amaranthus species, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and hepatoprotective activities, primarily associated with the presence of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, betalains, saponins, sterols, and peptides.

Supercritical CO₂ extraction studies have found that fractions with the highest concentrations of tocopherols (up to 7.6 mg/g) and squalene (up to 17.9 g/100 g oil) also showed the highest antioxidant activity as measured by the L-ORAC assay (up to 257.6 μmol TE/g).

Similar hypolipidemic and antioxidant effects were observed across various Amaranthus species, improving hepatic steatosis, boosting endogenous antioxidant systems, and attenuating obesity-induced metabolic dysfunctions.

Evidence strength: Antioxidant activity is well-characterized in vitro and in animal models. Direct human evidence for clinical antioxidant benefit remains limited and is largely inferred from constituent chemistry.

5.4 Anti-inflammatory Effects

A substantial proportion of the studied Amaranthus species exhibit anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anticancer, and antimicrobial properties.

A study in RAW 264.7 macrophages examined the compound 2-caffeoylisocitric acid (C-IA), a caffeic acid derivative found in amaranth, for its anti-inflammatory activity. Cell experiments were carried out to show the compound's effect on iNOS induction by observing iNOS mRNA and protein levels as well as NO release, and to investigate the effect on the nuclear translocation of p65 and how the compound modulates the expression levels of the NF-κB target genes TNFα and IL-6. This is an in vitro mechanistic study; human clinical data on amaranth's anti-inflammatory effects are not yet established.

Evidence strength: In vitro (cell culture) data suggest plausible NF-κB-mediated anti-inflammatory mechanisms. No robust human clinical trials on anti-inflammatory outcomes have been identified.

5.5 Iron Deficiency Anemia

Early research in children shows that eating bread made from amaranth grain daily increases healthy red blood cell levels. This finding aligns with amaranth's established high iron content.

Evidence strength: Early-stage human evidence (described as preliminary). The iron content of amaranth is well established nutritionally, but clinical confirmation of benefit in anemia treatment remains limited to small early-phase studies.

5.6 Antimicrobial Activity

A substantial proportion of the studied Amaranthus species exhibit antimicrobial properties. Antimicrobial activity of A. tricolor crude extract against S. aureus was assessed by disk diffusion and MIC determinations. The mechanism of antimicrobial activity was connected with cell membrane depolarization, reduction in intracellular pH, decrease in bacterial protein content, DNA cleavage, and leakage of cytoplasm. The plant extract has the potential to be a good food preservative that improves meat quality.

Evidence strength: In vitro data only. No human clinical trials on amaranth's antimicrobial efficacy have been identified.

5.7 Immunomodulatory Effects

The therapeutic and preventive properties reviewed in the current literature include antioxidant effects, antihypertensive benefits, anti-obesity properties, and antimicrobial, antitumor, hypocholesterolemic, immunomodulatory, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory effects, as well as amaranth's influence on the intestinal microflora.

Evidence strength: Largely preclinical. Human immunomodulatory data are not yet established from controlled trials.

5.8 Gluten-Free Suitability for Celiac Disease

Celiac disease is a food intolerance triggered by the ingestion of gluten-containing cereals; the only therapy is a strict gluten-free diet for life. In recent years, amaranth flour has received considerable attention as an interesting source for the formulation of gluten-free products due to its high nutritional value and low content of prolamins, the toxic proteins for celiacs.

In most amaranth grains, the content of gluten-like proteins measured by ELISA was less than 20 ppm. The molecular characterization of amaranth proteins suggests that amaranth is safe for celiacs to consume. This finding was based on a study characterizing 40 amaranth varieties using SDS-PAGE/immunoblotting and ELISA.

Evidence strength: Good laboratory-based evidence for gluten-free suitability. Established and widely accepted in dietetic practice.

6. Body Systems Associated with Amaranth

• Cardiovascular system: Hypolipidemic and antihypertensive potential via squalene, phytosterols, ACE-inhibiting peptides, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.
• Metabolic/endocrine system: Antidiabetic effects under investigation; fiber content relevant to glycemic modulation.
• Gastrointestinal system: High fiber content supports gut motility; traditional use for diarrhea, ulcers, and inflammatory bowel conditions.
• Immune system: Immunomodulatory effects studied preclinically; betalains and flavonoids implicated.
• Hematopoietic system: High iron content associated with support for red blood cell production; studied in iron-deficiency anemia in children.
• Musculoskeletal system: High calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus content relevant to bone health.
• Integumentary system: Amaranth oil applied topically; traditional use in skin conditions including acne and eczema.
• Nervous system: There are reports in the scientific literature regarding beneficial activity of amaranth on the cardiovascular and nervous systems.

7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies

The seed, oil, and leaves of amaranth are considered likely safe when used in food amounts. Taking amaranth as a medicine is possibly safe when used for 3 weeks or less.

The following dosages were used in specific studies as reported in the scientific literature:

• Animal antidiabetic/antihyperlipidemic studies: Oral administration of 400 mg/kg extract for 21 days in diabetic rats significantly reduced serum glucose and lipid parameters.
• Animal antihyperglycemic leaf extract study: Antihyperglycemic and hypolipidemic activity of the methanolic extract of leaves of Amaranthus viridis was investigated. Normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats were fed with 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg of extract per os for 21 days.
• General food amounts: Research has shown that consumption of 200 grams of cooked amaranth poses no health problems.
• Amaranth oil composition (for reference): Amaranth oil contains 77% polyunsaturated fatty acids (of which 50% is linoleic acid), and is characterized by high content of squalene (up to 8%), tocopherols (up to 2%), phospholipids (up to 10%), and phytosterols (up to 2%).
• Pharmaceutical/extract dosage form (patent reference): One described dosage form of an amaranth composition contains a water extract of Amaranth in a dose ranging from about 80 to about 1000 mg.

No standardized therapeutic dosage has been established by a regulatory pharmacopeia for amaranth as a supplement. All dosages above reflect values reported in experimental or preclinical contexts, not approved clinical recommendations.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

General Safety Profile

Polyphenol-rich botanical supplements such as those derived from amaranth generally exhibit a favorable safety profile at customary dietary or supplemental doses. The content and bioavailability of bioactive compounds significantly depend on the applied methods of raw material processing.

Oxalate Content

To date, no antinutrient has been found at problematic levels in grain amaranth; however, oxalate has not been thoroughly studied. Dietary oxalate is a potential risk factor for kidney stone development, and its presence in food lowers calcium and magnesium availability. These compounds can slightly reduce the absorption of minerals like iron and calcium. Cooking and soaking amaranth significantly reduces these antinutrient levels.

Gluten Cross-Contamination Risk

Those with celiac disease or gluten sensitivity should exercise caution, as amaranth is sometimes processed in facilities that also handle gluten-containing grains. This is a processing and handling concern, not an intrinsic property of the plant itself.

Vitamin K Interaction

Those taking blood-thinning medications like warfarin should be aware, as amaranth is high in vitamin K which can interfere with these drugs. Amaranth leaves in particular are notably rich in vitamin K, which can antagonize the anticoagulant effect of warfarin.

Kidney Disease Consideration

Individuals with kidney problems may need to be aware of amaranth's oxalate content, which can contribute to kidney stone formation. This consideration is most clinically relevant for individuals with a documented history of calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis.

Gastric Ulcer — Evidence of Inefficacy

Early research shows that amaranth oil does not help stomach ulcers in people already being treated with medications. This is a notable finding that illustrates the gap between traditional use claims and clinical evidence.

Anti-nutritional Factors in General

Although events of toxicity have occurred in livestock chiefly grazing on oxalate-rich plants, a balanced human diet typically contains only small amounts of oxalates. Oxalates are present in many commonly consumed plant foods. Soaking, cooking, and sprouting are processing methods documented to reduce phytates and other anti-nutritional factors in amaranth.

9. Variability by Species and Cultivar

Seeds from Peru, Slovakia, and Poland showed significant variability in nutrients and bioactive compounds. Polish cultivars had the highest protein and squalene levels, while Peruvian kiwicha excelled in polyphenols and antioxidants. Slovak and Polish samples contained abundant phytosterols and distinct tocopherol isomers, reinforcing functional food potential.

Different Amaranthus species show pronounced variation in amino acid composition, fatty acid profiles, mineral content, and other physicochemical characteristics. This substantial inter-species and inter-cultivar variability is an important limitation when interpreting the literature: findings from one species or preparation may not extrapolate to another.

10. Current Research Status and Limitations

The excellent nutritional value of amaranth, the diverse chemical composition of amaranth seeds and leaves, the wide spectrum of biological activity, and the health-promoting and pharmacological activity of the plant have aroused the interest of researchers in recent years. This has resulted in a significant increase in the number of scientific studies on the properties and potential use of preparations from this plant.

The broad spectrum of activities may suggest potential synergistic effects between different groups of phytochemicals, making these species particularly promising for pharmacological studies and for the development of natural therapeutic agents with multifunctional activity.

Nevertheless, the overall evidence base has significant limitations. The majority of mechanistic and efficacy data derive from in vitro cell studies and rodent models. The therapeutic use of amaranth extracts has not been fully explored; although there are in vivo/in vitro scientific studies and observed positive results, more information is needed to encourage clinical trials. Existing results warrant confirmation in larger, prospective clinical trials.

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