Jujube

Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity

Botanical and Scientific Nomenclature

Jujube was first described scientifically by Carl Linnaeus as Rhamnus zizyphus in Species Plantarum in 1753. Later in 1768, Philip Miller concluded it was sufficiently distinct from Rhamnus to merit separation into a new genus, naming it Ziziphus jujuba, using Linnaeus's species name for the genus but with a single-letter spelling difference (i for y); for the species name he used a different name, as tautonyms are not permitted in botanical naming. The accepted scientific binomial is thus Ziziphus jujuba Mill., with the older spelling variant Zizyphus jujuba appearing frequently in the literature.

Chinese jujube, an edible and medicinal fruit, is officially listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and the Japanese Pharmacopoeia. The official jujube, known in Chinese as Dazao, is prescribed as the dried fruit of Ziziphus jujuba Mill., indigenous to China with a history of over 4,000 years, belonging to the family Rhamnaceae.

A closely related and pharmacologically distinct taxon, Ziziphus jujuba Mill. var. spinosa (Bunge) Hu ex H.F. Chou—commonly called sour jujube or wild jujube—is also heavily used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), particularly for its seeds. This spiny shrub or small tree is widely distributed in northern China. It should be noted that these two taxa—the cultivated fruit jujube and the wild, seed-bearing sour jujube—have distinct chemical profiles and traditional uses, and the two are sometimes confused in the literature.

Common Names

The scientific name is Ziziphus jujuba Mill., and common names include: Annab, Ber, Chinese date, Daechu (Korean), Hei zao, Hongzao, Jujube, Natume (Japanese), Red date, Semen Ziziphi Spinosae, Sour date, and Suanzaoren.

Plant Description and Distribution

Z. jujuba is a small deciduous tree or shrub with thorny branches that grows 5 to 10 m tall. Its fruit is an edible oval drupe 1.5–3 cm long, varying from round to elongate and from cherry-size to plum-size depending on cultivar. The immature fruit is green in color, and the fully mature fruit is entirely red. Under dry conditions, jujubes lose moisture, shrivel, and become spongy inside. Ziziphus jujuba has been used since ancient times in traditional Eastern medicine and is widely cultivated in numerous countries between the tropical and temperate climatic zones due to its high ecological plasticity and resilience to adverse weather.

Common Forms and Preparations

The fruits of Ziziphus jujuba are edible and used in fresh and dried form. The fruit is eaten fresh or dried and made into candy; tea, syrup, and wine are also made from the berries. As a supplement, jujube is available as dried whole fruit, powdered fruit, standardized fruit extract, seed powder (called Suanzaoren or Semen Ziziphi Spinosae), seed extract, and as a component of polyherbal TCM decoctions. Research shows that every part of Ziziphus jujuba—the leaves, fruits, and seeds—demonstrates therapeutic properties.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

China

The official jujube is prescribed as the dried fruit of Ziziphus jujuba Mill., indigenous to China with a history of over 4,000 years. Traditional use of jujube dates back 2,500 years in original Chinese materia medica records. The fruit, seed, and bark are described in Korean, Indian, and Japanese traditional writings as well. They are used to alleviate stress and insomnia and as appetite stimulants, digestive aids, antiarrhythmics, and contraceptives.

The fruit's relevance is underscored by its widespread use in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), where it is a key component in almost half of all herbal prescriptions, often used to improve vitality and overall health.

Jujube is described in the Annotation of Shen Nong's Herbal: "The herb, being sweet in taste, removes poison of any substance, and is used to harmonize drugs in a prescription." The Chinese-English Manual of Commonly Used Herbs in Traditional Chinese Medicine lists the action of jujube "to moderate the potency of drugs: for counteracting the toxicity or side effects of potent drugs, such as genkwa, euphorbia, lepidium, etc."

This traditional Chinese medicine has been used to treat many diseases such as insomnia, forgetfulness, headaches, and dizziness. The jujube leaf, which is the main byproduct of jujube, has also been used in TCM for thousands of years to improve sleep, to nourish the heart and soothe the nerves, and to reduce hemorrhaging and diarrhea.

The seed of the var. spinosa (sour jujube seed, Suanzaoren) has long been a dedicated sedative agent. Its mature seeds serve as a core sedative agent in traditional Chinese medicine, renowned for their calming, tranquilizing, and heart-nourishing effects, with modern pharmacological studies further confirming these properties. Sour jujube has been utilized for millennia in traditional Chinese medicine and functional foods.

Jujube was described in TCM to possess the capacity to nourish Qi and blood, and improve the digestive system and sleep quality.

Other Cultures and Traditions

The genus Ziziphus (Rhamnaceae) contains 58 accepted species that are extensively used by local people and medicinal practitioners in arid and semi-arid regions for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, diabetes, hypertension, inflammation, intestinal spasm, liver disease, malaria, and other diseases.

Ziziphus jujuba Mill., a member of the family Rhamnaceae, commonly known as Bor, is used traditionally as a tonic and aphrodisiac, and sometimes as a hypnotic-sedative and anxiolytic, anticancer (melanoma cells), antifungal, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-inflammatory, cognitive, antispastic, antifertility/contraceptive, hypotensive, antinephritic, cardiotonic, antioxidant, immunostimulant, and wound healing agent.

Especially the root bark of this plant has been used for the treatment of liver toxicity, jaundice, and diabetic complications. In Korean traditional medicine, jujube (called Daechu) has been used in herbal combinations, and the classical Suanzaoren decoction formula for sleep disturbance has been in documented use. Jujube is also used in conventional health care for treating anorexia, fatigue, and diarrhea.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Overview of Phytochemistry

Over 150 compounds have been identified in this plant, including terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, fatty acids, volatile oils, polysaccharides, and others. Several types of components including triterpenic acids, flavonoids, cerebrosides, amino acids, phenolic acids, microelements, vitamins, total sugars, and nucleosides have been isolated and identified during the past decades.

Triterpenoids

More than 120 triterpenoids have been identified in Z. jujuba and its wild ancestor, and have various biological activities. Betulinic and ursolic acids have anticancer, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiviral activities. Ceanothic, alphitolic, and zizyberanalic acids possess anti-inflammatory activities.

Free triterpenes in Z. jujuba are primarily pentacyclic triterpenoids, including lupane-, oleanane-, ursane-, and ceanothane-types. Alphitolic acid and 3-O-trans-coumaroyl alphitolic acid in jujube can significantly reduce nitric oxide (NO) release and the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in macrophages. Furthermore, betulinic acid isolated from jujube can cause apoptosis of human breast cancer cell line MCF-7 cells through the mitochondria transduction pathway.

Triterpenoid Saponins (Jujubosides)

The seeds are particularly rich in flavonoid glycosides, such as spinosin and 6‴-feruloylspinosin, as well as saponins like jujuboside A and B. A novel triterpenoid saponin, jujuboside I, together with the known compounds jujuboside A, jujuboside B, jujuboside C, betulin, and betulinic acid, were isolated from Semen Ziziphi Spinosae [the seeds of Z. jujuba var. spinosa]. The jujubosides are considered among the primary bioactive compounds responsible for the sedative properties of the seed.

Flavonoids

Jujube fruits are rich in bioactive compounds such as vitamin C, flavonoids (rutin, quercetin), phenolics, triterpenic acids (betulinic acid, oleanolic acid), polysaccharides, and saponins. Jujube fruits have been found to contain chlorogenic acid, caffeine, catechin, epicatechin, and rutin. Phytochemical analysis of Z. jujuba var. spinosa identified 354 bioactive compounds, including 164 flavonoids and 74 triterpenoids, underlying the plant's broad-spectrum pharmacological activity.

Polysaccharides

Ziziphus jujuba is an excellent medicinal and edible plant owing to its high nutritional and health-promoting properties. Its polysaccharides have aroused wide attention due to their various pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, anti-viral, regulating gut microbiota, hepatoprotective effects, and prebiotic activity.

Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate (cAMP)

Jujube has been described as a super fruit due to its high content of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), among other compounds. The vitamin C content of the jujube fruit ranges from 200 to 600 mg/100 g fresh weight, and its cAMP content was the highest among 200 fruit species tested in 1980.

Other Notable Compounds

The pulp is dominated by organic acids, including citric acid, and phenolic compounds, while the leaves are abundant in flavonol glycosides, including rutin, and phenolic acids such as isochlorogenic acid B. Among the fatty acids and sterols identified in jujube leaves, major fatty acids include linolenic (42.04%) and palmitic (23.04%) acids, with unsaturated fatty acids ranging between 53% and 60%. The predominant sterols were β-sitosterol and stigmasterol.

Alkaloids

Triterpenoids, alkaloids, and flavonoids are the most common chemical compounds for the genus Zizyphus. Allied compounds include ascorbic acid, thiamine, riboflavin-bioflavonoids, Pectin A, and various alkaloids such as Mauritine-A, Amphibine-H, Jubanine-A, Jubanine-B, Mucronine-D, and Nummularine-B.

4. Mechanisms of Action

Sedative and Anxiolytic Mechanisms

Bioactive compounds such as spinosin and jujubosides modulate GABA-A receptors and serotonin (5-HT1A) pathways, inducing sedative effects. The key sedative compounds identified are jujuboside A, spinosin, and sanjoinine A, acting primarily through GABAergic and serotonergic pathways.

Compounds including phenol, flavonoid, and saponin cause hypnotic effects through influencing gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) system neural transmitters. These compounds also exert impacts on serotonin and the serotonergic system, which play a significant role in the sleep cycle.

The starch in jujube seed aqueous extract, when fermented with Lactobacillus brevis, produces a fermented product with a high γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content, which may further contribute to sleep-promoting effects.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

The phenolic compounds in jujube directly neutralize free radicals by donating electrons or hydrogen atoms, thus preventing oxidative damage to cellular components such as lipids, proteins, and DNA. Additionally, flavonoids in jujube modulate the activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as SOD, CAT, and GPX, leading to elevated scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and maintenance of redox homeostasis.

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

The anti-inflammatory properties of jujube bark ethanol extract have been confirmed via the down-regulation of inflammatory factors, including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). The standardized fruit extract has been shown to suppress NF-κB activity in cultured macrophages stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokine expression.

Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

Polysaccharides from jujube fruits reversed hepatic toxicity via antioxidant effect and augmentation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in experimental mice.

Gastrointestinal and Prebiotic Mechanisms

Jujube polysaccharides can promote tissue repair and adjust the gut microbes to produce anti-inflammatory effects, regulate intestinal microbes, and protect the gastrointestinal tract. Orally administered jujube polysaccharides effectively shortened gastrointestinal transit time, reduced caecum ammonia levels, elevated total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) concentrations in the cecum, increased fecal moisture, and reduced daily fecal ammonia outputs in a hamster model.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Sleep and Insomnia

This is the most extensively studied application of jujube, particularly of the seed (Suanzaoren). A systematic review analyzed 13 randomized controlled trials involving 1,454 patients with insomnia. The meta-analysis found that Suanzaoren-containing formulas as standalone therapy were significantly superior to placebo for improving sleep quality scores. When combined with diazepam, the formulas improved outcomes compared to diazepam alone, and produced fewer side effects than diazepam.

One study evaluated the effects of Z. jujuba Mill. var. spinosa seed through preclinical tests using a fermented seed mixture (ZJM) and a clinical trial employing seed extract (ZJE) and ZJM. In preclinical studies, the effects of ZJM on sleep latency, total sleep time, blood melatonin levels, and urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin levels were assessed in a mouse model, with melatonin as comparator. A randomized, double-blind clinical trial was conducted with 25 participants. Both the ZJE and ZJM groups showed significant reductions in Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) scores after the 28-day intervention compared to the control group (p < 0.01), reflecting improved sleep quality. The ZJM group exhibited slightly greater improvement than the ZJE group, suggesting that fermentation may enhance the sleep-promoting effects.

A double-blind randomized clinical trial demonstrated that Ziziphus jujuba seed capsules improved sleep quality in postmenopausal women.

In rodent studies, groups treated with fermented jujube seed water extract showed increased sleep time, especially δ-wave time during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. The 150 mg/kg treatment group also showed decreased sleep latency and increased sleep time in an insomnia model.

Evidence strength: Experiments in humans and animals support the presence of anxiolytic and sedative properties. However, robust evidence from epidemiologic and clinical studies is lacking. Despite promising preclinical findings, clinical validation of standardized fermented formulations remains limited. This underscores a critical research gap, particularly in translating these findings into effective human applications. Most positive clinical findings come from studies using multi-herb TCM formulas rather than jujube seed in isolation, and the formulas tested vary considerably across studies.

5.2 Anxiety

The seeds, fruit, and bark of jujube have been used in traditional medicine for anxiety and insomnia. Experiments in humans and animals support the presence of anxiolytic and sedative properties. However, robust evidence from epidemiologic and clinical studies is lacking. While Ziziphus jujuba Mill. (jujube) is used in folk medicine for hypnotic sedative and anxiolytic purposes, to date only a few studies have revealed its sleep-promoting effects and related mechanisms.

In a clinical study using seed extract and fermented seed mixture (25 participants, 28 days), following the consumption period, a general trend of decreased scores was observed across all groups. Specifically, GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder) scores decreased in the ZJE group (from 4.88 ± 3.80 to 1.38 ± 1.11) and the ZJM group (from 5.78 ± 4.83 to 3.22 ± 2.62). These are preliminary findings from a small trial, and the lack of large well-controlled human studies limits conclusions.

5.3 Antioxidant Activity

Jujube has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, immune regulatory, neuroprotective, sedative, and antiviral properties. Most of the reported therapeutic effects are primarily attributed to the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of rodent studies evaluated the effects of jujube fruit extracts on oxidative stress levels and reported reductions in oxidative stress biomarkers. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of jujube fruit extracts on oxidative stress levels in rodent models. Animal studies meeting the inclusion criteria were retrieved from multiple databases including PubMed and Embase. The risk-of-bias was assessed using the SYRCLE tool and a meta-analysis was performed based on Cochrane Handbook guidelines. However, clinical evidence for antioxidant outcomes in humans remains sparse.

5.4 Dyslipidemia and Metabolic Markers

A clinical study evaluated consumption of jujube fruit as a powder (5 g taken 3 times a day for 1 month) among 86 obese adolescents (12 to 18 years of age) with dyslipidemia. Decreased serum total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol were reported. This represents one of the very few controlled clinical studies in humans measuring metabolic outcomes. The study size is small and requires independent replication before conclusions can be drawn.

5.5 Urticaria (Skin Allergic Condition)

The effectiveness of Ziziphus jujube fruit syrup in combination with antihistamines was assessed in patients with chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU). This double-blind randomized clinical trial was conducted between December 2019 and December 2020. Sixty-four patients with CSU who had experienced hives for at least six weeks and did not respond to usual treatments were enrolled. They were randomly assigned to intervention and control groups; for four weeks, the intervention group received 7.5 mL Ziziphus jujube syrup twice a day, while the control group received 7.5 mL simple jujube syrup. Both groups also received cetirizine 10 mg every night. During follow-up, the urticaria activity score (UAS) in the intervention group was significantly lower (P=0.001), and this difference was significant on day 28 (P=0.046). Quality of sleep improved significantly in both groups, and this improvement was more significant in the intervention group. The authors concluded that Ziziphus jujube syrup could be an effective adjuvant treatment for CSU. This is a single center trial and results require confirmation in larger studies.

5.6 Anticancer Activity

Scientists have conducted in-depth research on jujube and discovered that jujube and its active ingredients have anti-cancer properties, which can effectively fight various types of cancers. Studies using specific saponins, as well as ethyl acetate and water extracts of the fruit and bark, have explored the potential cytotoxicity of jujube. Apoptosis and differential cell cycle arrest are suggested to be responsible for the dose-dependent reduction in cell viability. Activity against certain human cancer cell lines has been demonstrated in vitro.

Betulinic acid, a potent triterpenoid extracted from Z. jujuba, has exhibited selective toxicity toward human melanoma cells and has entered preclinical development for cancers such as lung, ovarian, and cervical types. The apoptotic effect of betulinic acid is p53- and CD95-independent, making it a versatile agent in preclinical cancer research.

Evidence strength: Anticancer data for jujube is almost entirely from in vitro cell-line studies and in vivo animal models. No clinical trials in human cancer patients have established efficacy for jujube or its isolated compounds as cancer therapies. The data is preliminary and exploratory.

5.7 Neuroprotection and Cognition

Jujube possesses neuroprotective activities, including protecting neuronal cells against neurotoxin stress, stimulating neuronal differentiation, increasing expression of neurotrophic factors, and promoting memory and learning. Flavonoid, cAMP, and jujuboside could be the potential bioactive ingredients to account for biological activities of jujubes, implying that jujube is a potential candidate for development of health supplements for prevention and/or treatment of neurological diseases.

Modern research confirms the broad pharmacological activities of wild jujube, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and cognitive-enhancing effects. However, neuroprotective findings remain largely at the preclinical (in vitro and animal model) level, and robust human clinical evidence for cognitive or neuroprotective outcomes is not yet established.

5.8 Hepatoprotection

Existing theories suggest that jujube polysaccharides' liver-protective functions may involve scavenging free radicals and enhancing antioxidant enzyme activity. Further detailed investigations are needed to elucidate the hepatoprotective activities. Mice receiving high-dose jujube polysaccharide treatment preserved normal liver architecture, effectively preventing cell necrosis and inflammatory infiltration. Comprehensive research on the hepatoprotective effects of jujube polysaccharides in humans is currently lacking.

5.9 Gastrointestinal Protection

A jujube bark ethanol extract (ZJB) alleviated body weight loss, reduced the disease activity index (DAI) score, and induced colon shortening in 5% DSS-induced (colitis) mice; inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6 were down-regulated in the serum. Polysaccharides are a major component in jujube and have significant gastrointestinal-protective effects, including promoting tissue repair, regulating intestinal microorganisms, and producing anti-inflammatory effects. Evidence in humans is limited; the majority comes from animal and cell-based studies.

5.10 Immunomodulation

A polysaccharide (JUBP-1) extracted and isolated from jujube had a good immune enhancement effect, mainly manifested as the induction of spleen cell proliferation. Another polysaccharide contained in jujube, JU-4, is known to act as an immunomodulatory factor with a direct ameliorating effect on the immune system. Evidence is preclinical only.

6. Body Systems Associated with Jujube

• Central Nervous System: Sedative, anxiolytic, and neuroprotective effects through GABAergic and serotonergic modulation, primarily from seed preparations.
• Cardiovascular System: Investigated for antihypertensive and antiarrhythmic effects; traditional use as a cardiac tonic; evidence predominantly preclinical.
• Gastrointestinal System: Polysaccharides contribute to gut microbiota regulation, intestinal barrier protection, and anti-inflammatory effects in the gut; traditional use as a digestive tonic.
• Immune System: Polysaccharides exhibit immunostimulatory and immunomodulatory activities in preclinical models.
• Hepatic System: Polysaccharides and triterpenoids show hepatoprotective effects in animal models via antioxidant and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.
• Metabolic System: Preliminary clinical evidence for improvements in cholesterol and blood lipids; preclinical evidence for antihyperglycemic activity.
• Integumentary System (Skin): Limited clinical investigation in urticaria; preclinical anti-inflammatory evidence.
• Oncological: Extensive in vitro and some in vivo evidence for anticancer activity; no clinical trial data in cancer patients.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Jujube is used in a variety of forms, and dosages reported in the scientific literature vary considerably by plant part, preparation, and indication.

• Dried fruit powder: A clinical study evaluated jujube fruit powder at 5 g taken 3 times a day for 1 month in 86 obese adolescents with dyslipidemia.
• Jujube fruit syrup: The intervention group in a CSU clinical trial received 7.5 mL Ziziphus jujube syrup twice a day for four weeks.
• Seed extract (ZJE) and fermented seed mixture (ZJM): Used in a study that evaluated sleep quality, involving preclinical tests and a 28-day randomized, double-blind clinical trial with 25 participants.
• Animal model dosing (not human): A pharmacokinetic study in rats used water extract at 1.0 g/kg and ethanolic extract at 3.6 g/kg for 10 days to examine CYP1A2 enzyme effects; these are rat doses and are not translatable directly to human supplementation.
• Suanzaoren decoction (polyherbal): Used in multiple clinical trials for insomnia; however, doses in these studies varied and the preparation always included additional herbs, making it impossible to attribute a definitive dose for jujube seed in isolation from these study results.

No universally established standardized human dosage has been defined by a major regulatory or pharmacopeial body as of current literature. Dosages used clinically vary significantly by preparation and indication.

8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

General Tolerability

Wild jujube is generally considered safe with few side effects. No toxicity-related morphological changes were observed in vital organs of Z. jujube-treated groups in one animal study.

Bark Preparations

Avoid use of jujube bark preparations, as flagged by clinical pharmacology references. The root bark has been investigated for toxicity modulation in animal models, and its safety profile in humans at therapeutic doses has not been adequately characterized.

Drug Interactions

An interaction with venlafaxine (an antidepressant/anxiolytic) has been reported. This suggests caution is warranted when jujube preparations are taken with serotonergic or CNS-active medications, given jujube's established serotonergic and GABAergic mechanisms.

Jujube fruit extract has been shown to affect the pharmacokinetics of phenacetin, a typical substrate of cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP1A2, in rats. Treatment with water and ethanolic extracts of jujube decreased the plasma concentration of phenacetin and increased that of its metabolite acetaminophen, resulting in a 43.2% and 15.5% reduction in the AUC0–120 of phenacetin, respectively, and a 53.2% and 64.9% increase in the AUC0–120 of acetaminophen. Although this study was conducted in rats, the finding raises potential concern about CYP1A2-mediated interactions in humans; clinical studies on this interaction are absent.

Allergy

A case report in the literature identified latex-jujube cross-reactivity, suggesting that individuals with latex allergy may be at risk for allergic reactions to jujube. This was documented in an immunological study (Lombardi et al., 2005, Allergy 60:971–2).

Pregnancy and Lactation

Information regarding safety and efficacy in pregnancy and lactation is lacking. In the absence of data, use of jujube supplements beyond normal dietary quantities cannot be recommended in these populations.

Overall Evidence Gaps

A deep focus on clinical studies and the phytochemical definition of jujube fruits will be critical for following research efforts. Considering the limited methodological qualities and inconsistent results of included trials, further rigorous randomized controlled trials are required. Most findings are based on in vitro and in vivo studies, with no clinical investigations; evidence from related species highlights potential human benefits and underscores the need for clinical validation.

References

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