Trichosanthes

Trichosanthes: A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Botany, and Natural Source

The snake gourd genus Trichosanthes is the largest genus in the Cucurbitaceae family, with over 90 species. Members of the genus are dioecious, rarely monoecious, perennial climbing herbs, characterized by unlobed or palmately lobed leaves with branched tendrils and ovoid to globose or elongated fusiform pepos (berries). The center of diversity for the genus is Southeast Asia, and its range extends from India to East Asia and southeast Australia.

The medically most significant species are Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. and Trichosanthes rosthornii Harms. Trichosanthes kirilowii is a flowering plant in the family Cucurbitaceae found particularly in Henan, Shandong, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi, China. It is one of the 50 fundamental herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine, where it shares the name guālóu (栝蔞) with the related T. rosthornii. It is known as "Chinese cucumber" and "Chinese snake gourd" in English. The tuber of this plant is known in Mandarin as tiān huā fěn (天花粉).

A second prominent medicinal species is Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.) is known by the common name of parwal and is cultivated mainly as a vegetable. It is a climber of the Cucurbitaceae family used traditionally for various therapeutic purposes.

Common Names and Synonyms

• Trichosanthes kirilowii: also called Chinese cucumber, Chinese snake gourd, Compound Q, Gua-lou, Gualoupi, Radix trichosanthis, Tian-hua-fen, and Trichosanthis Fructus.
• Trichosanthes dioica: known as pointed gourd or parwal in South Asian vernacular; as Patola in Sanskrit.

Plant Parts Used

Trichosanthis Fructus (the ripe fruits of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. and Trichosanthes rosthornii Harms) is an essential traditional Chinese medicine. T. kirilowii and T. rosthornii have a long history of medicinal use in China starting from the Eastern Han Dynasty, perhaps earlier. Nearly every part of the plant was exploited for medicine or food in ancient times.

Trichosanthes fruit (Gua Lou) is classified as one of the 50 fundamental herbs in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Originally the fruit was used more often; now it is the root that has become more popular as a medicine. Both have similar properties and applications. The roots were not identified as a medicine until 800 years after the fruit was originally used. The seeds (Gua Lou Ren) and the pericarp of the fruit (Gua Lou Pi) can also be used but are not as popular as the root and the fruit.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM)

Trichosanthis Radix (TR), a famous Chinese medicine used to treat Xiaoke (similar to diabetes), may have been the first Trichosanthes species used, with the first evidence recorded in Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, the earliest treatise on medicine in China. T. kirilowii and T. rosthornii have a long history of medicinal use in China starting from the Eastern Han Dynasty, perhaps earlier. Nearly every part of the plant was exploited for medicine or food in ancient times.

In traditional Chinese medicine, the plant is said to drain heat and generate fluids, clear and drain lung heat, transform phlegm, moisten lung dryness, and resolve toxicity and expel pus. Trichosanthis Fructus is an essential traditional Chinese medicine used to treat thoracic obstruction, angina, cardiac failure, myocardial infarction, pulmonary heart disease, and some cerebral ischaemic diseases.

The plant is famous for treating "wasting and thirst," an ancient reference in Traditional Chinese Medicine to diseases such as diabetes and tuberculosis. It also is used to treat angina pectoris.

Trichosanthis Fructus (Gualou in Chinese, Hanultari in Korean, and Zenkaro in Japanese) is considered an essential medicine to treat thoracic obstruction, which is a professional description of a traditional Chinese medicine syndrome.

Korean and Japanese Traditional Medicine

The fruits, seeds, and roots of species such as T. kirilowii and T. rosthornii are used in Korean traditional herbal medicines. Trichosanthis semen, the seeds of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. or Trichosanthes rosthornii Harms, has long been used in Korean medicine to loosen bowels and relieve chronic constipation. The root of Trichosanthes kirilowii has been traditionally used in Oriental medicine for the treatment of dry cough, asthma, sputum, sore throat, and diabetes symptoms including thirst.

Ayurvedic and South Asian Use

In the Charaka Samhita, leaves and fruits of T. dioica find mention for treating alcoholism and jaundice. According to Ayurveda, leaves of the plant are used as antipyretic, diuretic, cardiotonic, laxative, and antiulcer agents. Juice of the leaves of T. dioica is used as a tonic, febrifuge, in edema, alopecia, and in subacute cases of enlargement of the liver.

Ethnomedical surveys reveal its widespread use for treating gastrointestinal disorders, skin infections, and fever.

Use as an Abortifacient

In traditional Chinese medicine, preparations of the root tubers of Trichosanthes kirilowii had been used to induce abortion. From the same roots, the active principle was identified as a protein, trichosanthin. Radix trichosanthis, an abortifacient drug of mid-gestation, is extracted from the root tuber of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. Its purified effective principle is a basic protein of molecular weight of approximately 18,000 and is named trichosanthin. It has been proved to be very effective in abortion induction of mid-gestation, particularly effective in curing ectopic pregnancy, hydatidiform mole, and invasive mole, and it has also some therapeutic action on choriocarcinoma.

Traditional Preparations

The seeds are said to be best for use as a moistening agent for treating dry constipation, and the fruit's pericarp is said to be especially good for relieving stagnation of Qi in the chest.

3. Phytochemistry: Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Approximately 162 compounds, including terpenoids, phytosterols, flavonoids, nitrogenous compounds, and lignans, have been isolated and identified from Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. and Trichosanthes rosthornii Harms.

Trichosanthin (TCS)

Trichosanthin (TCS) is an RNA N-glycosidase that depurinates adenine-4324 in the conserved α-sarcin/ricin loop of rat 28S ribosomal RNA. TCS has only one chain and is classified as a type 1 ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP). The precursor of TCS is a 27 kDa protein consisting of 289 amino acids. The active form of TCS is obtained after the N-terminal 23 amino acid signal peptide and C-terminal 19 amino acid peptide are removed. TCS belongs to type 1 ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP), which is a single-chain polypeptide that can inactivate eukaryotic ribosomes by cleaving the N-glycosidic bond at adenine-4324 of 28S rRNA. This halts the protein synthesis function of the ribosome and ultimately results in cell death.

Cucurbitacins

A broad spectrum of bioactive compounds including trichosanthin, cucurbitacin B, flavonoids, sterols, and triterpenoids (e.g., lupeol, betulin, and taraxerol) has been identified across plant parts. Cucurbitacins B and D are bitter triterpenoids that have been associated with anti-inflammatory activity in laboratory studies.

Polysaccharides

Among the main active components, Trichosanthes kirilowii polysaccharide (TKP) has garnered growing attention due to its pharmacological potential. Recent studies have demonstrated that TKP exhibits diverse biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects.

Seed Oil and Fatty Acids

Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim seed oil (TSO) is rich in conjugated linolenic acids, and the flavonoids combined with n-3 fatty acids can effectively change plasma antioxidant capacity.

Additional Constituents

The various chemical constituents present in T. dioica are vitamin A, vitamin C, tannins, saponins, alkaloids, a mixture of novel peptides, proteins, tetra- and pentacyclic triterpenes, and others. Key constituents also include sterols (triterpene saponin alcohols including camposterol, sitosterol, stigmasterol), alkaloids, starch, lectins, euphol, lupeol, betulin, tannins, organic salts, resins, sugars, and pigments. Trichosan A, a glycan with anti-diabetic properties, is derived from Trichosanthes kirilowii through bioactivity-guided fractionation.

Analytical Characterization

Analytical techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS), and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) have been employed to characterize these constituents.

4. Established Mechanisms of Action

Ribosome Inactivation

Trichosanthin acts as an RNA N-glycosidase that depurinates adenine-4324 in the conserved α-sarcin/ricin loop of 28S ribosomal RNA. TCS consists of two domains, with five conserved catalytic residues (Tyr70, Tyr111, Glu160, Arg163, and Phe192) at the active cleft formed between them. Structural analyses suggest TCS attacks ribosomes by first binding to the C-terminal domain of ribosomal P protein.

Anti-HIV Mechanism

TCS selectively inhibits the replication of HIV virus type 1 (HIV-1) in both acutely infected T-lymphoblastoid cells and chronically infected macrophages in vitro. TCS prevents HIV-1 DNA integration in a dose-dependent manner in cell culture. TCS has also been found to induce apoptosis, enhance the action of chemokines, and inhibit HIV-1 integrase.

Immunomodulatory Actions

TCS can induce immunosuppression of non-toxic T-lymphoproliferative responses in humans, up-regulate interleukin-4 (IL-4) gene expression, and suppress interferon-γ (IFN-γ) gene expression. TCS also regulates the expansion of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells, and researchers found that TCS can prevent allograft rejection and prolong graft survival duration in a murine skin transplantation model.

Trophoblast Cytotoxicity (Abortifacient Mechanism)

The protein is highly toxic to trophoblasts and choriocarcinoma-derived cells; when administered intra-amniotically, it causes necrosis of syncytiotrophoblastic cells and fragmentation of placental villi. Clumps of disintegrating cells cause blood clotting and circulation impairment, leading to large areas of necrosis in the placenta and death of the foetus.

Hypoglycemic Mechanism

A novel TK protein (TKP) was identified by proteomic approach that interacted with the insulin receptor (IR) by docking analysis and activated the kinase activity of IR. In addition, TKP enhanced the clearance of glucose in diabetic mice in a dose-dependent manner.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Diabetes and Blood Glucose Regulation

Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. is traditionally used for the treatment of diabetes in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, the clinical application of TK on diabetic patients and the hypoglycemic efficacies of TK are still unclear.

Retrospective Cohort Study: A retrospective cohort study was conducted to analyze the usage of Chinese herbs in patients with type 2 diabetes in Taiwan. Glucose tolerance tests were performed to analyze the hypoglycemic effect. A proteomic approach was used to identify the protein constituents of TK, and insulin receptor (IR) kinase activity assays and glucose tolerance tests in diabetic mice were used to elucidate the hypoglycemic mechanisms and efficacies. The study found that TK was the most frequently used Chinese medicinal herb in type 2 diabetic patients in Taiwan. Oral administration of an aqueous extract of TK displayed hypoglycemic effects in a dose-dependent manner in mice.

Polysaccharide Studies (Animal): A study established type 2 diabetes mouse models to explore the effects and mechanism of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim. polysaccharide (TMSP1) on high-fat diet/streptozotocin-induced diabetes mice. High-fat diet significantly increased oral glucose tolerance test values, viscera index, oxidative stress, and impaired glucose tolerance. After 6 weeks of TMSP1 intervention, it decreased lipid accumulation, ameliorated gut microbiota dysbiosis by increasing short-chain fatty acid (SCFA)-producing bacteria, and mitigated intestinal inflammation and oxidative stress.

Lectin Study (In Vitro and Animal): Trichosanthes kirilowii lectin (TKL) has been reported to exert hypoglycemic effects in alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Using a high-glucose-induced HK-2 cell model and a streptozotocin-induced Wistar rat model, TKL significantly increased the viability of high-glucose-treated HK-2 cells and inhibited cell apoptosis. In vivo experiments demonstrated that TKL attenuated streptozotocin-induced histopathological damage and the inflammatory response in rat kidney tissues.

Evidence strength: The retrospective cohort data is observational and limited by confounders inherent to real-world prescribing patterns. Animal and cell-line results are promising but do not establish clinical efficacy in humans. Robust, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials in humans are currently lacking.

5.2 Cardiovascular System

Numerous studies have shown that the extracts and compounds isolated from T. kirilowii and T. rosthornii exhibit pharmacological activities, including protection against myocardial ischaemia, calcium antagonism, endothelial cell protection, anti-hypoxic activity, and anti-platelet aggregation. Trichosanthis Fructus is an essential traditional Chinese medicine with pharmacological activities that mainly affect the cardiovascular system.

The clinical applications of Trichosanthes in the cardiovascular system have recently attracted great interest because of its therapeutic effect. Research on the relative mechanisms of Trichosanthes in the cardiovascular system is gradually accumulating. Various cardiovascular activities of Trichosanthes and the protection mechanism it induces in cardiovascular cells have been reviewed.

Evidence strength: Most cardiovascular evidence comes from in vitro and animal models. The traditional indication for thoracic obstruction (analogous to angina and coronary artery disease) has generated mechanistic interest in platelet aggregation inhibition and myocardial protection, but high-quality human clinical trial evidence is lacking.

5.3 Oncology (Anti-Tumor)

Colorectal Cancer (Preclinical): The anti-tumor effects of the ethanolic extract of T. kirilowii seeds (TKSE) were evaluated in HT-29 and CT-26 colorectal cancer cells and in a CT-26 tumor-bearing mouse model. TKSE suppressed the growth of HT-29 and CT-26 cells, and the cytotoxic effect was greater than that of 5-fluorouracil (5-Fu) in HT-29 cells. TKSE significantly induced mitochondrial membrane potential loss and dose-dependently inhibited Bcl-2 expression and induced the cleavages of caspase-3 and PARP. At 300 µg/mL, TKSE induced nuclear condensation and fragmentation in HT-29 cells. TKSE dose-dependently inhibited activations of the Akt/mTOR and ERK pathways and markedly induced the phosphorylation of AMPK.

Oral administration of TKSE (100 or 300 mg/kg) inhibited tumor growth in a mouse CT-26 allograft model but was not as effective as 5-Fu (the positive control), which was administered intraperitoneally. In the same model, 5-Fu caused significant body weight loss, but no such loss was observed in TKSE-treated mice.

TCS manifests attractive pharmacological properties for its anti-tumor, anti-virus, and immunoregulatory activities. It has been found that TCS not only exhibits very high in vitro antitumor activity against common tumor cells but can also kill multidrug-resistant cancer cells.

Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim (Gua Lou) has long been used to treat phlegm retention, chest obstruction, and inflammatory conditions, and extracts or purified proteases derived from this species have demonstrated antitumor and anti-inflammatory activities in preclinical models.

Evidence strength: Anti-cancer evidence is predominantly preclinical (cell lines and animal models). No robust randomized clinical trials in humans have been completed. Findings are considered preliminary.

5.4 Antiviral Activity (HIV and Others)

Phase I/II clinical trials with TCS alone or in combination with other anti-HIV drugs, zidovudine or dideoxinosine, showed that TCS could decrease serum HIV-1 p24 antigen level and increase the percentage of CD4+ cells in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex.

Trichosanthin was the first ribosome-inactivating protein found to possess anti-HIV-1 activity. Phase I/II clinical trials of this compound had been done. Antigenicity and short plasma half-life were the major side effects preventing further clinical trials. Modification of TCS is therefore necessary to revive the interest in developing this compound as an anti-HIV agent.

Besides having anti-HIV effect, TCS also exhibits a promising inhibitory effect on Herpes simplex virus (HSV) and Hepatitis B virus (HBV).

Evidence strength: Phase I/II clinical trials in HIV/AIDS patients were conducted, providing early clinical proof of concept for antiviral effects. However, immunogenicity and short half-life severely limited further clinical development. Evidence for anti-HSV and anti-HBV activity remains at the in vitro level.

5.5 Respiratory System (Expectorant and Anti-Asthma)

Trichosanthes kirilowii is a plant used in traditional Chinese medicine. Its fruits, seeds, and roots can all be used medicinally. The fruit of T. kirilowii has a moistening effect on the lung for arresting cough. However, there was no scientific research confirming that the fruit of T. kirilowii can improve asthma. Female BALB/c mice were sensitized with ovalbumin to induce asthma and treated with varying oral doses of T. kirilowii fruit extract (TK) from days 14 to 27. Additionally, IL-4/TNF-α-stimulated BEAS-2B cells were treated with different doses of TK to investigate inflammatory cytokine and chemokine secretion. TK treatment significantly mitigated airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), eosinophil infiltration, and airway inflammation in the lungs of asthmatic mice.

Trichosanthes kirilowii is a perennial vine plant belonging to the gourd family and is widely distributed in Northeast Asia, including Korea, China, Japan, and Mongolia. Traditionally, TK extract has been used as an expectorant, antitussive, and as a medicine for burns and frostbite.

Evidence strength: Anti-asthma evidence is currently limited to animal (murine) and cell-based studies. Traditional expectorant use is well-documented historically, but placebo-controlled clinical trials in humans are absent.

5.6 Gastrointestinal / Laxative Effects

Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim has been well-documented for its pharmacological effects in alleviating constipation. A mouse model of diphenoxylate-induced functional constipation was established. The laxative effect of TKP on fecal excretion function, intestinal inflammatory response, neurotransmitter secretion, and gut microbiota composition were evaluated.

In Charaka Samhita, leaves and fruits find mention for treating alcoholism and jaundice.

Evidence strength: Evidence for laxative effects remains at the animal model level. No human clinical trials have been published specifically investigating this indication.

5.7 Wound Healing

Recent research showed that TK extract has anticancer, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory properties. TK extract has shown wound-healing potential in the CAM (Chick Chorioallantoic Membrane) assay through the promotion of angiogenesis. The proposed mechanism involves the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in keratinocytes, promoting cell proliferation and migration.

Evidence strength: Wound-healing evidence is based on in vitro cell-culture experiments and a chick chorioallantoic membrane assay. Human clinical data are not available.

5.8 Hypolipidemic Activity

Trichosanthes kirilowii Maxim seed oil (TSO) is rich in conjugated linolenic acids, and the flavonoids combined with n-3 fatty acids can effectively change plasma antioxidant capacity. Hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress are among the most important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Studies have been conducted in high-fat-fed rodent models.

Evidence strength: Hypolipidemic evidence is animal-based. Human trials have not been reported.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas

Chinese cucumber has been studied, primarily in animal and in vitro studies, for its cardiovascular, immune system, antioxidant, antidiabetic, expectorant, and gastroprotective effects. Antiviral activity and potential application in cancer therapy is being investigated.

The principal body systems associated with Trichosanthes in both traditional use and scientific investigation include:

• Cardiovascular system: Extracts exhibit pharmacological activities including protection against myocardial ischaemia, endothelial cell protection, anti-hypoxic activity, and anti-platelet aggregation; Trichosanthis Fructus is an essential traditional Chinese medicine with pharmacological activities that mainly affect the cardiovascular system.
• Respiratory system: Expectorant, antitussive, and anti-inflammatory effects in the lungs are among the most established traditional indications, corroborated by preclinical models.
• Endocrine/metabolic system: Antidiabetic and hypolipidemic activities documented in animal and limited clinical observational studies.
• Immune system: Trichosanthin exhibits broad immunomodulatory activity across multiple pathways, including T-cell regulation and cytokine modulation.
• Reproductive system: Trichosanthin has established abortifacient activity clinically applied in China.
• Gastrointestinal system: Laxative and gastroprotective uses documented in traditional medicine and preclinical studies.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

Since 1977, chemical compounds in T. kirilowii and T. rosthornii have been isolated from several plant parts, including seeds, pericarps, fruits, twigs, and roots. These plant parts are administered in various forms in traditional and contemporary settings.

The following dosages have been reported in specific published studies:

• Oral administration of TKSE (ethanolic extract of T. kirilowii seeds) at 100 or 300 mg/kg inhibited tumor growth in a mouse CT-26 allograft model.
• In a mouse constipation model, experimental groups received Trichosanthes kirilowii polysaccharide (TKP) at doses of 300, 600, and 900 mg/kg body weight per day.
• In a type 2 diabetes mouse model, TMSP1 polysaccharide was administered for 6 weeks and was observed to decrease lipid accumulation and ameliorate gut microbiota dysbiosis.
• In a subchronic exposure safety study in Sprague-Dawley rats, the T. kirilowii seed preparation was administered at 5 g/kg body weight, which established a no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) of ≥ 5 g/kg body weight.

A lack of clinical trials and toxicity of the plant's root limit use for any indication. Clinical studies are lacking to provide dosing guidance for humans.

8. Safety Considerations and Toxicology

Abortifacient and Reproductive Toxicity

Trichosanthin, extracted from the root tuber of Trichosanthes kirilowii Maximowicz, has multiple pharmacological properties including abortifacient, anti-tumor, and anti-HIV effects. It is traditionally used to induce abortion, but its antigenicity and short plasma half-life have limited repeated clinical administration. The protein is highly toxic to trophoblasts and choriocarcinoma-derived cells. When administered intra-amniotically, it causes necrosis of syncytiotrophoblastic cells and fragmentation of placental villi. Clumps of disintegrating cells cause blood clotting and circulation impairment, leading to large areas of necrosis in the placenta and death of the foetus.

Immunogenicity and Short Half-Life

Phase I/II clinical trials of trichosanthin had been conducted. Antigenicity and short plasma half-life were the major side effects preventing further clinical trials. Three potential antigenic sites (Ser-7, Lys-173, and Gln-219) were identified by computer modeling. Through site-directed mutagenesis, these three antigenic amino acids were mutated, leading to research into PEGylation strategies to reduce immunogenicity.

Preclinical Safety Assessment of Seeds

A toxicological study in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats at 5 g/kg body weight showed no adverse effects, establishing a NOAEL of ≥ 5 g/kg body weight. Teratogenicity studies in pregnant rats at 5 g/kg body weight confirmed normal maternal, embryonic, and fetal development without skeletal or visceral abnormalities. The seed preparation (ST) exhibited no detectable genotoxic, acute, subchronic, or teratogenic risks under tested conditions.

Known Clinical Safety Signals

Trichosanthin has multiple pharmacological properties including abortifacient, anti-tumor, and anti-HIV effects. Its antigenicity and short plasma half-life have limited repeated clinical administration. These two factors — immune reactions and the need for parenteral administration — have been the primary safety obstacles in the clinical development of purified trichosanthin-based therapeutics.

Overall Evidence Gaps

A lot of pharmacological work has been scientifically carried out on various parts of T. dioica, but some other traditionally important therapeutical uses also remain to be proven scientifically. Future research is needed to clarify the different uses of the seeds, pericarps, and fruits. Quality control of investigations of the fruits should be improved, and the potential uses of the flesh, leaves, and twigs should be explored.

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