Nettle

Nettle (Urtica dioica L.): A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity, Taxonomy, and Botanical Description

Urtica dioica L. (family Urticaceae), commonly known as stinging nettle, is an herbaceous perennial plant belonging to the group of phytoalimurgic vegetables — wild edible species that were historically used during food shortages. The genus Urtica comprises 46 species, the most important being Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) and Urtica urens (small nettle), which are native to Europe, Africa, Asia, and North America, and naturalized in other temperate parts of the world.

Urtica dioica is a perennial herb from the family Urticaceae that is widespread in Europe, Africa, America, and a part of Asia, as it adapts to different environments and climatic conditions. The plant is well known for the dermatitis it causes when touched, due to biochemical mediators such as histamine and acetylcholine.

The leaves, stalk, and bark of U. dioica have found applications in the fields of nutrition, cosmetics, textile, pest control, and pharmacology. Bioactive chemical constituents such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, and fatty acids have been isolated from the plant.

Common Names and Synonyms

• Botanical name: Urtica dioica L.
• Family: Urticaceae
• Common names include: common nettle, stinging nettle, nettle, and Soii (Kashmiri).
• In Iran the plant is known as Gazane.

Plant Parts Used

The parts of the plant commonly used in herbal products include dried rhizomes, roots, leaves, seeds, and flowering plants. Roots, seeds, stems, and young, tender leaves are all edible. Lectins, lignans, polysaccharides, and sterols make up the root of the nettle.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

The plant has been used as nutritious food and traditional medicine for centuries. Leaves and stalks are used for salads and as vegetables, and tea prepared from the leaves, stalks, and roots is also consumed.

Stinging nettles have a broad geographical distribution and have been used in a range of traditional and historical medicines from around the world. Various parts of nettle plants appear in preparations for the treatment of skin diseases, urinary disorders, respiratory diseases, bone and joint pain, anaemia, and other circulatory problems, as well as in cosmetic preparations for skin and hair care, in traditional remedies or historical medical texts from many cultures.

U. dioica is a species of significant importance in folk medicine worldwide, including that of European, Asian, North African, and North American countries. The plant was used in various forms, including extracts, decoctions, juice, and infusions, to support the treatment of arthritis, rheumatism, allergies, and urinary tract disorders. It was also applied externally as an ointment to alleviate burns, sunburns, and insect bites.

Some of these uses appear rational given current scientific knowledge. For instance, nettles are effective accumulators of heavy metals and are generally agreed to be a good source of iron, so their use in anaemia treatments appears sensible.

Indigenous and North American Traditions

Native Indigenous peoples use stinging nettle for medicine, ceremony, and as a food source. Traditionally, Dakota and Ojibwe harvesters gather the leaves bare-handed, as the stinging effect is considered preventative care for arthritis and joint pain. Mature fibrous stems have also been used to make rope, cloth, and fishing nets.

European Traditions

Historically, Urtica dioica was used in the past when there was a shortage of food, and belongs to the group of phytoalimurgic vegetables. More recently there has been a rediscovery of the plant as food and medicine because of the range of biological activities exhibited, such as antirheumatic, anti-infective, immunomodulatory, anti-hyperglycaemic, and allergy relief effects.

Various ethnomedicinal studies have reported the use of Urtica dioica as a diuretic and for the treatment of cough, cold, cuts, and wounds.

Preparation Forms in Traditional Use

Stinging nettle has a long history of being used as food and traditional medicine. Recently, this plant is gaining attention as a highly nutritious food, where fresh leaves are dried and used as powder or in other forms. Cooking, drying, or crushing the leaves removes their sting, making them safe to eat.

3. Nutritional Composition

Various species of the genus Urtica are reported to be rich sources of nutritional components, such as amino acids, fibers, phenolic compounds, vitamins, and minerals. The leaves of Urtica dioica are rich in chlorophylls, carbohydrates, carotenoids, fats, vitamins, and minerals.

Nettle powder contains high amounts of protein (38%), crude fiber (9%), total ash (16.2%), calcium (0.17%), and iron (0.23%), and is relatively low in carbohydrate (37%). Compared to barley and wheat flour, it has much higher protein, crude fiber, fat, ash, calcium, and iron, and a low glycemic index.

Calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron, sulphur, zinc, manganese, copper, and nickel are minerals found in the stinging nettle shoot. It contains vitamin C and provitamin A. Protein accounts for about 30% of dry mass and contains numerous amino acids essential to humans. Minerals account for about 20% of the dry mass.

Processed nettle can supply 90–100% of the daily requirement for vitamin A (including vitamin A as β-carotene) and is a good source of dietary calcium, iron, and protein.

Protein and essential amino acids are present in abundant quantities in roots, stems, leaves, and fruits, of which 70% of proteins are digestible. The protein content of leaves before flowering was higher compared to after flowering, at 27.4% and 20.7%, respectively.

4. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Leaf Constituents

Various bioactive chemical constituents have been isolated from stinging nettle, such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, and fatty acids. Stinging nettle extracts and its compounds, such as rutin, kaempferol, and vitamin A, are used for their nutritional properties and as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant agents.

Beta-sitosterol, transferulic acid, dotriacontane, erucic acid, ursolic acid, scopoletin, rutin, quercetin, and p-hydroxylbenzalcohol are some of the constituents found in Urtica species that may be applied for preventive or therapeutic purposes in communicable and noncommunicable diseases.

Root Constituents

Lectins, lignans, polysaccharides, and sterols make up the root of the nettle. The root contains phytosterols, lignans, and polysaccharides, which are implicated in anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and antiviral effects, modulation of the immune system, and the relief of benign prostatic hyperplasia symptoms.

Sting Fluid

The liquid contained in the stinging hairs of the nettle causes its characteristic sting; it is composed of formic acid and leukotrienes in modest amounts, 1% acetylcholine, 1-in-500 to 1-in-2000 histamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin).

Antioxidant Compounds

Studies confirm high levels of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and total phenolics in nettle material, establishing its antioxidant potential. Compared to barley and wheat, stinging nettle has much higher levels of tannin content, total polyphenol content, and antioxidant activity.

5. Mechanisms of Action

Anti-inflammatory Pathways

The leaves of Urtica dioica have been reported to show anti-inflammatory properties and can be used to treat persistent inflammatory conditions. Previous studies showed that biosynthesis of the arachidonic acid cascade enzymes, particularly the cyclooxygenases COX-1 and COX-2, was inhibited by leaf extracts, which reduced the formation of prostaglandins and thromboxane. Furthermore, the PAF (platelet activating factor) system, inflammatory response, and antioxidant reaction are inhibited. The NF-κB system, which is implicated in immunity, is also affected.

U. dioica extract has been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory effects by suppressing NF-κB activation, reducing TNF-α and IL-1β production in synovial tissue. In addition, it decreased TNF-α, interferon, and IL-2 levels, as demonstrated by several in vitro and in vivo experiments performed on both human and animal models.

Allergic Rhinitis Mechanisms

A nettle (Urtica dioica) extract shows in vitro inhibition of several key inflammatory events that cause the symptoms of seasonal allergies. These include antagonist and negative agonist activity against the Histamine-1 (H1) receptor and the inhibition of mast cell tryptase, preventing degranulation and release of pro-inflammatory mediators. The nettle extract also inhibits prostaglandin formation through inhibition of COX-1, COX-2, and Hematopoietic Prostaglandin D2 synthase (HPGDS), central enzymes in pro-inflammatory pathways.

Anti-arthritic Mechanisms

The anti-inflammatory effect of Urtica extract in rheumatoid arthritis is due to its inhibitory effect on NF-κB activation and the genetic transcription factor that activates TNF-α and IL-1β in synovial tissue that lines the joint, lowering TNF-α and other inflammatory cytokines levels.

U. dioica leaf extract has been found to inhibit the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB, which is elevated in the synovial fluid of rheumatoid arthritis, suggesting a potential mechanism by which UD modulates inflammatory pathways. In addition, UD extract has antioxidant properties that may contribute to the protection of joint tissues from oxidative damage and may exert a potential anti-osteoarthritis effect.

Neuroprotective Mechanisms

Neuroprotective efficacy of medicinal plants can be achieved through various mechanisms, including antioxidant activity, inhibition of inflammation, and preventing accumulation of polyubiquitinated protein aggregates in the brain. It has been demonstrated that U. dioica provides neuroprotective activity via modulation of different inflammatory and biochemical markers (TNF-α, IL-1β, NF-κB, GSH, CAT, etc.), highlighting significant potential in the management of neuroinflammation. According to numerous computational, in vitro, in vivo, and clinical investigations, U. dioica represents a promising herb with neuroprotective potential, especially for neurodegenerative disorders associated with diabetes and Alzheimer's disease.

Cytochrome P450 Interactions

Studies in rat models examining Urtica seed extract's potential to modulate drug metabolizing enzymes demonstrated that CYP2C6 and CYP2E1 mRNA levels were substantially increased after treatment, while the level of CYP3A1 mRNA decreased. These results indicate that Urtica seed extract may have the potential to inhibit and/or induce the metabolism of certain co-administered drugs. Note: these findings are from animal studies and their direct relevance to human CYP enzyme interactions requires further investigation.

6. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

6.1 Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

BPH is the most extensively studied clinical application of nettle root extract. Products containing nettle root are recommended for the symptomatic treatment of urinary disorders, such as urinary incontinence, frequency, nocturia, urinary retention, and BPH.

Systematic review evidence (2025): A systematic review published in 2025 evaluated the effectiveness of Urtica dioica as a treatment of BPH. Searches were conducted from database inception to February 2024 across MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, and ClinicalTrials.gov. Randomized clinical trials (RCTs) investigating U. dioica (with or without usual care) were considered, and the GRADE approach was used to evaluate the certainty of evidence. Six RCTs with a total of 1,210 patients met the inclusion criteria. The risk of bias of the included studies was mostly unclear or high.

Meta-analyses showed that, compared with controls (placebo, usual care), Urtica dioica improved slightly BPH symptoms measured with the International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) at follow-ups of up to 12 months. There is some promising evidence for the effectiveness of U. dioica in reducing the symptoms of BPH; however, the small number of trials and several methodological shortcomings limit the conclusiveness of the findings.

Earlier meta-analysis: Five publications involving a total of 1,128 patients were analyzed, and primary efficacy endpoints — including the IPSS (SMD = −10.47, 95% CI = −18.12 to −2.82, p = 0.007), peak urinary flow rate Qmax (SMD = 4.37, 95% CI = 1.55 to 7.19, p = 0.002), and prostate volume (SMD = −3.63, 95% CI = −4.67 to −2.57, p < 0.00001) — favoured Urtica dioica. The use of nettle root extract in combination with conventional medical treatment of BPH was effective in decreasing the severity of urinary problems, including urinary frequency, urgency, and nocturia; however, the nettle extract was not effective in modifying prostate-specific antigen level, prostate volume, feeling of incomplete emptying, intermittency, urine stream, straining, or quality of life associated with urinary problems.

Key RCT: A 6-month, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, partial crossover, comparative trial of Urtica dioica with placebo was conducted in 620 patients for symptomatic relief of lower urinary tract symptoms secondary to BPH. Patients were evaluated using the IPSS, maximum urinary flow rate, postvoid residual urine volume, serum PSA, testosterone levels, and prostate size. The trial concluded that Urtica dioica had beneficial effects in the treatment of symptomatic BPH.

Combination trial: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial analyzed the results of a combination of Pygeum africanum and stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) extracts in patients with BPH. The combination of 25 mg Pygeum africanum and 300 mg stinging nettle extracts produced clinical and urodynamic effects similar to placebo. This result illustrates the inconsistency across trials and the confounding effects of combination preparations.

Evidence strength: Moderate — multiple RCTs show directionally consistent but modest improvements in urinary symptom scores; methodological quality is generally low to moderate, and the GRADE certainty of evidence is limited.

6.2 Allergic Rhinitis

In vitro mechanisms: In vitro, a nettle extract shows inhibition of several key inflammatory events causing seasonal allergy symptoms, including antagonist and negative agonist activity at the H1 receptor, inhibition of mast cell tryptase preventing degranulation, and inhibition of prostaglandin formation through COX-1, COX-2, and HPGDS.

Clinical evidence: In a randomized double-blind clinical trial, 74 patients with signs and symptoms of allergic rhinitis and a positive skin prick test were randomly divided into two groups taking Urtica dioica 150 mg (Urtidin® F.C. Tablet) or placebo for one month. Their signs and symptoms, eosinophil percentage on nasal smear, serum IgE, and interleukin IL-4, IL-5, and interferon-γ levels were recorded. Forty patients completed the trial. Based on the Sino-Nasal Outcome Test 22 (SNOT-22), a significant improvement in clinical symptom severity was observed in both groups (P < .001). Furthermore, a statistically significant reduction in mean nasal smear eosinophil count was observed after treatment with nettle (P < .01).

Mittman et al. reported that while the freeze-dried extract of nettle leaves reduced allergy symptoms based on global assessment at the end of a double-blind clinical trial, only a small difference was observed between the herb and placebo on daily response diaries.

Evidence strength: Preliminary — in vitro mechanistic rationale is compelling, but clinical trials are small, short in duration, and produce mixed results. Well-powered RCTs are needed.

6.3 Arthritis and Joint Pain

Some Urtica species, including Urtica dioica, are recognized as important herbs for rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatism, and osteoarthritis in Asian and European countries. Clinical tests have proven therapeutic effects of nettles in relieving various kinds of pain, including rheumatic pain, osteoarthritis pain, musculoskeletal pain, and base-of-thumb pain.

Key RCT (diclofenac combination): Administration of 1,340 mg of powdered extract of U. dioica (nettle leaves) has been reported to reduce arthritis severity. A randomized controlled trial in 50 patients suffering from chronic joint disease in Germany demonstrated the effectiveness of a combination of stewed nettle along with 50 mg of diclofenac (group D50+U) compared to a standard dose of 200 mg of diclofenac. Both treatments were equally effective in mitigating clinical symptoms of acute arthritis. This finding is notable because it suggests that nettle co-administration may allow a meaningful reduction in NSAID dosage, though the small sample size limits generalizability.

Rheumatoid arthritis RCT: A randomized, double-blind, controlled trial investigated the anti-rheumatic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects of Urtica dioica and Evening Primrose Oil (EPO) in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. The trial involved 90 RA patients randomly assigned to EPO, Urtica dioica, and placebo groups, evaluating effects on DAS28, VAS, total antioxidant capacity, IL-17, rheumatoid factor, anti-CCP antibodies, CRP, and ESR before and after the trial.

Gout: Urtica dioica has been traditionally used in Chinese medicine for the treatment of joint pain and rheumatoid arthritis, and key bioactive compounds — apigenin-7-O-glucoside and kaempferol — demonstrate significant binding to SLC22A12 and ABCG2, suggesting their potential to reduce uric acid levels and inflammation. However, this evidence is from network pharmacology and computational docking studies, not clinical trials.

Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate — the diclofenac-sparing RCT is intriguing but very small. Most arthritis evidence derives from preclinical and mechanistic studies. Larger, well-controlled human trials are lacking.

6.4 Type 2 Diabetes and Glycemic Control

Several randomized controlled clinical trials (RCTs) have investigated the effect of nettle (Urtica dioica) supplementation on markers of glycemic status in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, with conflicting results.

A comprehensive search conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science identified RCTs investigating the effect of nettle supplementation on glycemic markers, including fasting blood sugar, insulin levels, homeostasis model assessment-estimated insulin resistance index, and glycosylated hemoglobin percentage in adults with T2DM.

Among 1,485 citations, thirteen clinical trials were found to be eligible for one such meta-analysis. Most of the included studies concluded that Urtica dioica can significantly reduce blood sugar. Researchers have proposed several mechanisms for this process.

While in vitro studies have shown that stinging nettle possesses potentially beneficial anti-inflammatory and modulating properties, beneficial effects have often not been confirmed by well-designed clinical trials. Further study, perhaps with novel types of extracts, is needed to determine the clinical utility of this plant in human inflammatory-related conditions and diabetes mellitus.

Evidence strength: Mixed and preliminary — meta-analyses draw on a pool of heterogeneous, often small and methodologically limited RCTs. Results across trials are inconsistent, and study quality is generally low. The direction of effect favors modest blood glucose reduction, but no robust conclusion can be drawn at this time.

6.5 Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Activity (General)

U. dioica has been used as an herbal remedy and dietary supplement for centuries. It has a long record of anti-inflammatory activity, and several mechanisms of action have been discussed. Plant part, extraction solvent, and phytoconstituents have a determinant effect on both efficacy and therapeutic objective. Current literature mainly elaborates on the antioxidant effect of Urtica species, with the anti-inflammatory role still being a matter of discussion, as in vitro and in vivo studies have only been characterized to a limited extent.

Contemporary scientific studies have confirmed the efficacy of nettle preparations, justifying its traditional usage. Researchers have found that it exhibits anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and analgesic activities. Furthermore, nettle has demonstrated anti-proliferative, anti-hypertensive, and anti-diabetic effects.

Evidence strength: Well-established at the in vitro and preclinical level; clinical confirmation in humans across most of these domains remains sparse.

6.6 Neuroprotection

U. dioica has been demonstrated to provide neuroprotective activity via modulation of inflammatory and biochemical markers (TNF-α, IL-1β, NF-κB, GSH, CAT, and others), highlighting significant potential in the management of neuroinflammation. According to numerous computational, in vitro, in vivo, and clinical investigations, U. dioica represents a promising herb with neuroprotective potential, especially for neurodegenerative disorders associated with diabetes and Alzheimer's disease.

Evidence strength: Preliminary — predominantly derived from laboratory and animal studies. Human clinical evidence in neurological conditions is very limited to date.

7. Dosage Forms and Reported Study Dosages

Nettle is produced and used in multiple pharmaceutical and food forms. Standardization of commercial preparations is lacking.

• BPH (root extract, aqueous): Clinical trials for BPH have used aqueous extracts of U. dioica root in dosages of 360 mg daily over 6 months, and methanol root extract in dosages of 600 to 1,200 mg daily for 6 to 9 weeks.
• BPH (double-blind RCT, 100 patients): One group was given nettle and another group placebo (two capsules of 300 mg each, twice a day) for a period of 8 weeks.
• Allergic rhinitis (freeze-dried leaf): Dosages of 600 mg of freeze-dried nettle leaf have been used in a clinical trial for allergic rhinitis.
• Allergic rhinitis (tablet): A randomized double-blind clinical trial used Urtica dioica 150 mg (Urtidin® F.C. Tablet) for one month.
• Arthritis (leaf powder, with NSAID): Administration of 1,340 mg of powdered extract of U. dioica leaves was reported to reduce arthritis; a German RCT combined stewed nettle with 50 mg of diclofenac.

8. Body Systems and Health Areas

Urtica dioica has been extensively studied for various pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, and for antiviral, antimicrobial, antihelmintic, anticancer, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, antiarthritis, antidiabetic, antiendometriosis, and antiaging purposes.

• Urinary/prostate system: Symptomatic treatment of BPH; diuretic effects; historical use for urinary tract disorders.
• Musculoskeletal system: Rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, gout, and general joint pain.
• Immune and allergic system: Allergic rhinitis (hay fever); inhibition of mast cell degranulation and histamine signaling.
• Metabolic system: Blood glucose regulation; insulin resistance in type 2 diabetes.
• Nervous system: Emerging neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory activity.
• Cardiovascular system: Anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic effects have been demonstrated.
• Nutritional use: Processed nettle can supply 90–100% of vitamin A requirements and is a good source of dietary calcium, iron, and protein.

9. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

General Tolerability

Common side effects of stinging nettle include constipation, diarrhea, or upset stomach. In acute oral toxicity tests, no adverse effects were observed up to 4 g/kg in animal models.

Contact Dermatitis

The plant is well known for the dermatitis it causes when touched, due to biochemical mediators such as histamine and acetylcholine in the stinging hairs.

Drug Interactions

Nettle's high vitamin K content can decrease the effectiveness of anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin, increasing clotting risk. Nettle can lower blood pressure, leading to an additive effect and potential hypotension when combined with antihypertensive drugs. It may lower blood sugar, increasing the risk of hypoglycemia if taken with insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents. Combining nettle with diuretics such as furosemide can cause excessive fluid and electrolyte loss.

Urtica species have been reported to enhance the impact of CNS depressant medications. The concomitant use of Urtica aerial parts with sedatives, including lorazepam, phenobarbital, clonazepam, zolpidem, and others, may lead to sleepiness and drowsiness.

Animal studies indicate that Urtica seed extract may have the potential to inhibit and/or induce the metabolism of certain co-administered drugs, though the clinical significance of these CYP enzyme interactions in humans is not yet established.

Pregnancy and Lactation

There is no information available about the use of nettle during pregnancy or while breastfeeding.

Contraindications and Cautions

Urtica species should be avoided in the case of acute arthritis due to the risk of drug-drug interaction.

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