IngredientsCommon names: Propolis, bee glue, bee putty, hive dross. The name derives from the Greek pro (before) and polis (city), referring to its role in protecting the entrance of the hive.
Biological source: Propolis is a natural resinous substance collected by honeybees from tree buds and exudates. It consists mainly of resins, balsams, beeswax, essential oils, pollen, and other organic compounds. It is formed by honeybees (Apis mellifera) by mixing substances such as plant resins collected from nature. Within the hive, propolis functions as a sealant, antimicrobial barrier, and structural material.
The botanical source — and therefore the chemistry — of propolis varies substantially by geographic region. The main three types of propolis are European propolis (called poplar-type propolis), green Brazilian propolis (derived mainly from the leaf resin of Baccharis dracunculifolia), and red Cuban propolis (from the floral resin of Clusia rosea). The plant source gives each type a specific composition and properties.
The poplar-type propolis is predominant in Europe, North America, and parts of Asia. It is derived mainly from Populus species (P. nigra, P. alba, P. tremula), with secondary plant sources such as Betula pendula, Salix alba, Pinus sp., and Aesculus hippocastanum. It is characterized by high contents of flavonoid aglycones and esters of substituted cinnamic acids, together with aromatic sesquiterpenes in its volatile fraction.
In contrast, Baccharis-type propolis from South America, especially Brazilian green propolis derived from Baccharis dracunculifolia, is rich in cinnamic acid derivatives, with artepillin C as a specific marker compound. Brazilian propolis is quite diverse in chemical composition, due to Brazil's rich biodiversity, and has been investigated as a source of new bioactive substances, such as cinnamic acid derivatives, chiefly artepillin C, flavonoids, and others with pharmacological or functional properties.
In Venezuela and Cuba, the flowers of Clusia minor and Clusia rosea, respectively, produce resin that bees collect for propolis production. In both cases, flavonoids are minor propolis constituents, the major compounds being polyprenylated benzophenones.
Propolis-containing oral capsules, chewable tablets, lozenges, drops, sprays, creams, ointments, mucoadhesive gels, oral syrups, toothpastes, and mouthwashes are commercially available products.
As a rule, propolis extracts are prepared using continuous soaking in various solvents: water, acetone, ethanol of different concentrations, a mixture of methanol and dichloromethane, and others. Hydroalcoholic solutions are most effective for extracting biologically active compounds from propolis, enhancing its pharmacological activities. Biologically active substances mostly have low solubility in water, and the amount of phenolic compounds in water extracts is 10-fold lower than in ethanolic extracts. Ethanol extracts of propolis are more effective and show higher levels of antimicrobial activity compared to water, ester, and chloroform fractions.
Standardization of propolis extracts is an ongoing challenge in the field. Propolis is known for its biological properties and its preparations have been continuously investigated in an attempt to solve the problem of their standardization, an issue that limits the use of propolis in food and pharmaceutical industries. Some commercial manufacturers have developed patented standardized extracts; for example, one poplar-type propolis extract (M.E.D.® propolis) is characterized by a reproducible chemical composition especially regarding six main flavonoids, including galangin, chrysin, pinocembrin, apigenin, pinobanksin, and quercetin, with a relative concentration of about 40% (w/w).
The traditional use of propolis is documented since at least 300 B.C. The Egyptians worshiped the bee and used propolis in the mummification process. It was also well known to the priests who, at that time, monopolized medicine and chemistry.
The ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians were aware of the healing properties of propolis and made extensive use of it as a medicine. In the Middle Ages, propolis was not a very popular topic and its use in mainstream medicine disappeared. However, the knowledge of medicinal properties of propolis survived in traditional folk medicine. The interest in propolis returned in Europe together with the Renaissance theory of ad fontes.
Ancient Greeks added propolis as a main ingredient of a perfume called polyanthus. Medicinal properties of propolis were probably identified by Greek and Roman doctors and scientists such as Aristotle, Pliny the Elder, Galen, Cornelius Celsus, and Dioscorides. Hippocrates (considered the father of modern medicine) was one of the first physicians to use this substance to cure wounds and ulcers.
The ancient Jews considered tzori (the Hebrew word for propolis) as a medicine. Tzori and its therapeutic properties are mentioned throughout the Old Testament. The biblical Balm of Gilead (tzori Gilead in Hebrew) is nearly indistinguishable from propolis. Balm of Gilead is described in the Bible as the gift that the Queen of Sheba gave to King Solomon.
Propolis was also known by ancient Persians, Arabs, and Jews. The Hebrew word for propolis, "tzori," was described in the Old Testament as a therapeutic balm and a component of special incense. Arabs and Persians used propolis as a drug against several diseases and as a cleansing agent.
Propolis' use was not limited to European or Mediterranean cultures; the Incas used it as an anti-pyretic, while the Chinese employed it for toothaches and infections. The great Persian physician Avicenna also thought highly of propolis' healing potential; in an ancient manuscript he suggested its use for eczema, myalgia, and rheumatism. The Renaissance-era author Gerard wrote that propolis was useful for all types of inflammation.
Propolis has been well known from traditional uses in treating purulent disorders, improving wound healing, and alleviating many related discomforts. Even if its use was already widespread since ancient times, after the First and Second World War it grew even more, as did the studies to identify its chemical and pharmacological features.
It has only been in the last century that scientists have been able to prove that propolis is as active and important as its historical users believed. Research on chemical composition of propolis started at the beginning of the twentieth century and was continued after World War II.
Propolis contains over 300 identified chemical compounds, primarily flavonoids and phenolic acids, influencing its biological activities. More than 300 compounds have been identified in propolis, and almost all the biological activities of this substance are closely related to the presence of phenolic components such as flavonoids, terpenes, aromatic aldehydes, beta-steroids, and alcohols.
Propolis is rich in flavonoids (galangin, chrysin, quercetin), phenolic acids (caffeic, ferulic, cinnamic acid derivatives), and other bioactive compounds like artepillin C and coumaric acid. Flavonoids are one of the most important agents, which have anti-inflammatory, anti-viral, anti-allergic, anti-cancer, anti-bacterial, and antioxidant effects.
The typical components of poplar propolis are the phenolics: flavonoid aglycones (flavones and flavanones), phenolic acids, and their esters. A particularly studied compound is caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), which has attracted significant research interest for its anti-inflammatory and antiviral properties.
The typical compounds of Brazilian propolis are prenylated derivatives of p-coumaric acid and of acetophenone, as well as diterpenes and lignans. Propolis possesses a variety of biological properties because of a very complex chemical composition that mainly depends on the plant species visited by bees and species of bees.
The precise composition of propolis varies according to plant source, season of harvesting, geography, type of bee flora, climate changes, and honeybee species at the site of collection. This chemical variability is one of the primary obstacles to the development of standardized pharmaceutical preparations.
Propolis exerts antibacterial effects through multiple pathways: inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis, disrupting membrane integrity (causing ion leakage and ATP depletion), and blocking nucleic acid synthesis by targeting DNA gyrase and topoisomerase II. It also inhibits biofilm formation. Flavonoids interfere with bacterial enzymes and DNA synthesis, while artepillin C modulates inflammatory pathways such as NF-κB, reducing prostaglandin and nitric oxide production.
The anti-inflammatory activity of propolis is multifactorial. Artepillin C modulates inflammatory pathways, such as NF-κB, reducing prostaglandin and nitric oxide production. Additionally, individual flavonoid constituents contribute to suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines across multiple signaling cascades.
The rich polyphenolic content of propolis underlies its free-radical scavenging activity. Phenolic constituents isolated from propolis show more potent free-radical scavenging activity than caffeic acid and vitamins C and E.
Propolis has shown a few key mechanisms of anti-SARS-CoV-2 action, including: the inhibition of the interaction of the S1 spike protein and ACE-2 protein; decreasing the replication of viruses by diminishing the synthesis of RNA transcripts in cells; and decreasing the particles of coronaviruses. The anti-viral effect is observed not only with extracts but also with the single biologically active compounds found in propolis, such as apigenin, caffeic acid, chrysin, kaempferol, and quercetin.
Propolis or its main components show regulatory effects on cyclin D, CDK2/4/6, and their inhibitors. Propolis-induced up-regulation of p21 and p27 may result in cell cycle arrest at G2/M or G0/G1. The broad pro-apoptotic effects of propolis are mediated through upregulation of TRAIL, Bax, and p53, and downregulation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway. These findings are primarily from in vitro and animal models.
Propolis demonstrates synergistic effects with conventional antibiotics, enhancing their efficacy against drug-resistant strains by increasing membrane permeability and inhibiting resistance enzymes. This suggests potential for reduced antibiotic dosages and side effects, though clinical validation is still required to optimize such combinations.
This is one of the most extensively studied clinical areas for propolis. Propolis and its phenolic and flavonoid constituents have many therapeutic uses in oral health.
Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis (RAS): A systematic review and meta-analysis assessed the efficacy and safety of propolis for treating recurrent aphthous stomatitis (RAS), adopting the PICO framework to examine the effects of topical and systemic propolis on RAS compared to established treatments, placebos, or no treatment. The focus was on healing time, pain levels, adverse effects, likelihood of ulcer recurrence, and accompanying symptoms. The review included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-randomised trials. Several propolis-based products have been tested clinically in humans, including mouthwash, solutions for topical application, spray, mucoadhesive film, paste, and oral capsules.
Gingivitis and Periodontitis: A systematic review focused on clinical randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that examined the effectiveness of propolis-containing mouthwashes in comparison with propolis-free preparations for the treatment of gingivitis and periodontitis, employing related periodontal indices. In patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic periodontitis, propolis supplementation has been found to improve glycemic control and periodontal health. A clinical trial demonstrated significant reductions in hemoglobin A1c, fasting plasma glucose, and serum Nε-(carboxymethyl) lysine levels, alongside improved periodontal parameters.
Endodontics: Studies have shown that propolis as a storage medium is capable of maintaining the vitality of periodontal ligament cells and also has the ability to inhibit osteoclastic activity due to one of its active compounds. In vital pulp therapy, propolis can induce the production of tubular dentin and also decrease the inflammation of the pulp.
Oral Mucositis (Chemotherapy-Induced): One randomized, controlled study tested propolis as a mouthwash in the reduction of chemotherapy-induced oral mucositis (OM). Patients undergoing chemotherapy were consecutively randomized to an experimental group receiving propolis mouthwash (n = 20) and a control group receiving diluted water (n = 20). This represents a small single-center study; evidence is preliminary.
Overall, evidence in oral health is among the stronger areas for propolis, though most RCTs are small and heterogeneous in their propolis preparations, making definitive conclusions difficult.
Propolis is considered the bee product with the highest antimicrobial activity. The antibacterial activity of propolis has been confirmed by numerous scientific studies. Antibacterial activity has been demonstrated against both gram-positive and gram-negative, both aerobic and anaerobic types. Although the composition of propolis differs considerably depending on its botanical origin, all examined types of propolis revealed strong antibacterial activity.
In vitro studies have shown broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity of various propolis extracts, although activity was highest in gram-positive bacteria and yeasts. Synergism with several antibiotics has been demonstrated.
Helicobacter pylori: In vitro studies showed that 30% ethanolic extract of propolis exerted dose-dependent anti-H. pylori activity. However, the first clinical report on propolis in this context involved 18 H. pylori-positive patients orally administered 20 drops of alcoholic preparation of propolis three times a day for one week. Forty days later, 83% of the patients remained positive for H. pylori, leading to the conclusion of minimal effectiveness of propolis in eliminating the infection. The clinical evidence for propolis against H. pylori is therefore weak, based on a very small uncontrolled pilot study.
Evidence strength: Antimicrobial activity is robustly demonstrated in vitro and in animal models. Clinical evidence in humans is limited and largely lacking rigorous RCT design for most infections.
Propolis remains an interesting source of natural chemical compounds that show, among others, antiviral, antioxidative, and anti-inflammatory activities. Due to the growing incidence of respiratory tract infections caused by various pathogenic viruses, complementary methods of prevention and therapy are being sought. The properties of propolis may be important in the prevention and treatment of respiratory tract diseases caused by viruses such as SARS-CoV-2, influenza viruses, the parainfluenza virus, and rhinoviruses.
In vitro and in vivo assays have demonstrated propolis' broad-spectrum effects on viral infectivity and replication, as well as modulatory actions on cytokine production and immune cell activation as part of both innate and adaptive immune responses. Clinical trials confirmed propolis' potential as an effective therapeutic agent; however, the lack of rigorous randomized clinical trials in the context of respiratory diseases is tangible.
Antiviral action has also been demonstrated in animal and in vitro experiments, including activity against herpes simplex viruses types 1 and 2 and influenza viruses.
An increasing number of studies have focused on the activity of various propolis preparations against SARS-CoV-2 as an adjuvant treatment. Propolis has shown a few key mechanisms of anti-SARS-CoV-2 action, including the inhibition of the interaction of the S1 spike protein and ACE-2 protein and decreasing the replication of viruses. However, the majority of this evidence is preclinical (in vitro or in silico).
Evidence strength: Antiviral evidence is primarily preclinical (in vitro and animal). A modest body of clinical evidence exists, but robust RCTs are lacking, particularly for respiratory infections.
Propolis has been evaluated in multiple clinical trials for cardiometabolic outcomes. A systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to summarize the effect of propolis on metabolic parameters in human adults. A comprehensive systematic search was performed in ISI Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar up to July 2020 for controlled clinical trials evaluating the impact of propolis on lipid profile and liver enzyme biomarkers. A random effects model was used to calculate the weighted mean difference and 95% confidence interval.
A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Chile investigated propolis' effects on oxidative status and lipid modulation. A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted. Eligible subjects (n = 67) were randomized into two groups: propolis (n = 35) and placebo (n = 32). All subjects were evaluated at baseline, 45 days, and 90 days. In the propolis group, increases in HDL-cholesterol went from 53.9 ± 11.9 to 65.8 ± 16.7 mg/dL (p < 0.001) from baseline to 90 days.
Animal and human studies have demonstrated that propolis is effective in enhancing immune system function, regulating glucose and lipid metabolisms, and improving blood pressure. The antihypertensive effects of propolis are thought to be achieved through mechanisms such as the stimulation of endothelial-dependent vasodilation, vascular anti-inflammatory activity, and the suppression of catecholamine synthesis.
Clinical trials have shown that propolis supplementation has a positive effect on anthropometric indices, but other studies have not reported significant changes in anthropometric variables. Prior meta-analyses evaluating the anti-obesity properties of propolis were limited to only four and five studies, which revealed no significant effects on body weight and body mass index.
Evidence strength: Moderate but growing. Several RCTs and meta-analyses exist for glycemic and lipid outcomes, particularly in patients with type 2 diabetes. Results are promising but inconsistent across studies, partly due to variation in propolis type, dose, and duration.
Propolis has been evaluated for its effects on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), showing protective effects against hepatic steatosis and fibrosis. It significantly reduced liver stiffness and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels, indicating its potential as a therapeutic agent for NAFLD.
Propolis may also benefit patients with rheumatoid arthritis by reducing inflammation and oxidative stress. It inhibits inflammatory pathways and reduces reactive oxygen species, potentially alleviating pain and improving disease control.
A clinical study evaluated the antioxidant activity of a standardized propolis extract (EPP-AF®) in healthy volunteers. This was a two-phase sequential, open-label, nonrandomized, before-and-after clinical trial. Healthy participants received two EPP-AF® doses (375 and 750 mg/day, taken orally in three divided doses) during 7 ± 2 days, starting with the lower dose. The limitations of this design (no control group, small sample) mean results must be interpreted cautiously.
Evidence strength: Preliminary to moderate. Individual RCTs suggest benefit in specific inflammatory conditions, but the overall body of clinical evidence is limited by small sample sizes and heterogeneous study designs.
Considering the growing body of evidence regarding different anti-cancer effects of propolis and its active components, this natural compound could be considered a potential effective adjuvant therapy aimed at reducing related side effects associated with chemotherapy and radiotherapy. However, this assessment is based largely on preclinical evidence.
Propolis has been studied for its anticancer and neuroprotective properties, but human clinical trials specifically designed to evaluate anticancer outcomes of propolis as a primary intervention remain limited.
Evidence strength: Predominantly preclinical (in vitro and animal). Robust human clinical trial evidence for anticancer outcomes is lacking. Any anticancer role in humans remains speculative based on current evidence.
Since ancient times, propolis has been used as a traditional folk medicine, alone or in combination with other natural substances, to treat wounds. It is also well known from traditional uses in treating purulent disorders and improving wound healing.
In vitro evidence supports propolis' role in wound healing, with studies demonstrating stimulation of fibroblast migration and proliferation. A wide range of therapeutic uses due to its antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, wound and bone healing, and anticancer effects have been demonstrated in various in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo studies, as well as in human clinical trials.
Evidence strength: Supported by a combination of in vitro, animal, and some clinical data, especially in the oral cavity context. Topical wound-healing evidence is more developed than systemic evidence.
There is no universally accepted therapeutic dose for propolis, and dosages vary considerably across studies depending on the preparation, extract type, indication, and patient population.
Regarding topical concentrations, oral doses in clinical studies often range from 400–500 mg/day, while topical products use 0.5%–3% propolis. These figures reflect dosage ranges reported in published clinical studies and do not represent established therapeutic recommendations.
Propolis has been associated with a wide range of body systems in scientific and traditional literature. Numerous studies have found versatile pharmacological activities of propolis: antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and others. Propolis has been used to treat various medical conditions, including those affecting the gastrointestinal tract, gynaecological health, neoplastic conditions, skin, and oral health.
Sensitivity to propolis has been found in European studies in 1.2–6.6% of subjects; a Finnish study found sensitivity in adults at 0.5–1.4%, and in children at 2–13.7%. A Polish study in children found sensitivity in 16.5% and in young adults in 5.4%. The observed allergic reactions include contact cheilitis, contact stomatitis, perioral eczema, labial edema, oral pain, peeling of lips, and dyspnea. Various allergens have been isolated from propolis, including 3-methyl-2-butenyl caffeate, phenylethyl caffeate, benzyl caffeate, geranyl caffeate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl cinnamate, methyl cinnamate, ferulic acid, and tectochrysin.
Propolis seems to be one of the most frequent contact sensitizers and should be included in routine patch testing in children and adolescents before prescribing it.
From April 2002 to August 2007, 18 suspected adverse reactions associated with propolis-containing products were reported to the Italian national surveillance system of natural health products. Sixteen reports concerned allergic reactions (with dermatological or respiratory symptoms), while two concerned the digestive tract. Some of the reactions were serious: six patients were admitted to hospital or visited an emergency department, and in two of these a life-threatening event was reported.
Propolis is a potent sensitizer and should not be used in patients with an allergic predisposition, in particular an allergy to pollen.
Propolis may slow down blood clotting. It is advised to avoid taking propolis if one has a bleeding disorder or is concurrently taking blood thinners, and to stop taking propolis at least two weeks before surgery.
With the growing interest in the medicinal use of propolis, numerous studies have reported significant interactions between propolis extract and pharmaceutical drugs, which may result in clinical benefits or risks.
Propolis may slow down the breakdown of drugs that are metabolized by the liver and may increase their effects. The concurrent use of propolis and prescription medications may prolong the half-life and increase the systemic availability of chronically used drugs with narrow therapeutic indices. The repeated use of drugs such as antibiotics, heart medications, and antidepressants, or drugs with a narrow therapeutic index such as antineoplastic and anticoagulant agents, can cause toxic effects by raising blood plasma levels.
The strong antioxidant activity of propolis also has shown a potential capacity to strengthen the therapeutic effect of metformin in attenuating hyperglycemia and pancreatic damage. Additionally, propolis has shown a potential capacity to enhance short-term and long-term memory function together with donepezil and improve motor function with levodopa. These interaction data require further validation in human clinical trials.
In people suffering from uncontrolled allergic asthma, propolis can theoretically trigger a respiratory flare-up in the event of an underlying allergic reaction.
The mildly irritating properties of certain propolis components (aromatic essential oils, resins) may aggravate pre-existing gastric irritation.
The therapeutic application of propolis faces key challenges. Its chemical composition varies by geographic origin, botanical source, and bee species, complicating standardization. Extraction methods also affect the yield and potency of active compounds. Clinical data are limited, especially regarding long-term safety in immunocompromised individuals and risks of allergic reactions.
In clinical studies, propolis has been investigated for its activity against chronic vaginitis, genital herpes, and periodontal and respiratory tract infections; however, these studies are either unblinded, nonrandomized, or not compared with standard therapy, making definitive statements about efficacy difficult.
Regarding safety, propolis, as a resinous substance, exhibits a relatively low incidence of allergic reactions. A large-scale study involving 2,007 cases reported that only 3.8% of participants experienced allergic symptoms.
Health conditions that Propolis may help support.
Propolis (bee glue) has well-documented antibacterial properties against C. acnes and has been evaluated in double-blind RCTs for acne. A 30-day double-blind RCT using a propolis–tea tree oil–aloe vera cream vs. erythromycin demonstrated comparable or superior reductions in total lesion counts and acne severity. Its bioactive constituents include flavonoids and phenolic acids with anti-inflammatory activity.
Propolis (bee propolis) contains caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE) and artepillin C, which have potent NF-κB inhibitory and antioxidant effects in vascular endothelial cells. Multiple studies demonstrate propolis reduces LDL oxidation, inhibits platelet aggregation, and reduces arterial inflammation. RCTs show improvements in lipid profiles and inflammatory markers relevant to atherosclerosis.
Propolis is a resinous honeybee product with documented in vitro antifungal activity against dermatophytes including Trichophyton species. Small clinical studies have shown propolis extracts can treat fungal nail infections, and it appears as an active ingredient in some OTC antifungal formulations. Lab studies confirm antifungal properties relevant to tinea pedis; human RCT evidence specific to tinea pedis is limited.
Bee propolis and its bioactive compounds (artepillin C, caffeic acid phenethyl ester/CAPE, flavonoids) have demonstrated immunomodulatory effects in autoimmune conditions including RA and IBD. CAPE inhibits NF-κB and reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines. Clinical and preclinical evidence supports anti-inflammatory and immune-balancing effects.
Propolis, a bee-derived resinous substance, has documented antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and wound-healing properties with preclinical and some clinical evidence for burns. Animal studies confirm propolis stimulates glycosaminoglycan remodeling in burn wounds superior to silver sulfadiazine. Propolis nano-emulsion achieved 98.13% wound contraction at day 14 in a rat second-degree burn model and improved epithelialization, fibrosis, and angiogenesis.
Propolis is a resinous hive product from bees with broad-spectrum antifungal activity against multiple Candida species confirmed across multiple in vitro studies from diverse geographic sources. It inhibits C. albicans germ tube formation and growth. Multiple reviews confirm consistent anti-Candida activity, and it is recognized in integrative Candida protocols.
Bee propolis, a resinous compound produced by honeybees containing flavonoids and caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), has demonstrated antifungal activity against Candida albicans in multiple in vitro studies by disrupting the fungal cell membrane. Brazilian and other regional propolis types have been documented for anti-Candida efficacy. It is included in some Candida cleanse protocols.
Propolis is a resin-like substance collected by honeybees with documented antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties. Clinical trials have shown propolis reduces the incidence and duration of upper respiratory tract infections, including in children. It exerts broad-spectrum antiviral and antibacterial activity alongside stimulation of macrophage and NK cell activity.
Bee propolis has been used in traditional medicine across cultures for energy and vitality, with modern research showing anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that address fatigue pathophysiology. Brazilian green propolis (artepillin C) has been studied for immune support and fatigue reduction, particularly in cancer-related fatigue contexts.
Bee propolis has demonstrated antiviral and immunomodulatory activity relevant to cold and flu. A combination RCT found echinacea plus propolis plus vitamin C significantly reduced respiratory infection frequency in children vs. placebo. Propolis flavonoids and caffeic acid derivatives show antiviral activity against influenza viruses and rhinovirus in vitro. ConsumerLab and EBSCO list propolis among cold and flu supplements.
Propolis is a resinous bee product with multiple RCTs demonstrating efficacy against herpes labialis at least equivalent, and often superior, to acyclovir 5% cream. A 2025 systematic review and a 2026 meta-analysis confirmed propolis as one of the strongest herbal interventions for herpes labialis, with demonstrated shorter healing times and better symptom resolution compared to acyclovir in several trials.
Propolis (bee propolis) has clinical evidence for atopic dermatitis. Artepillin C and other polyphenols in propolis exhibit anti-inflammatory activity, and propolis-tea tree oil-aloe vera cream (PTAC) has been tested in AD clinical studies. Propolis has traditional use across diverse cultures for inflammatory skin conditions.
Bee propolis has demonstrated anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties evaluated in endometriosis. A single RCT confirmed propolis supplementation was effective in reducing endometriosis-related pain. Propolis contains bioactive compounds including flavonoids, phenolic acids, and Artepillin C with direct anti-inflammatory activity.
Propolis, a resinous bee-derived substance, has demonstrated antifungal activity against Candida species, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. tonsurans, and other dermatophytes in multiple in vitro studies. A PMC study (Frontiers in Microbiology 2018) assessed ethanol propolis extract for onychomycosis from bench to clinical application with positive antifungal outcomes. Brazilian red propolis shows activity against Trichophyton species responsible for dermatophytosis. Its antifungal components include flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds.
Propolis has demonstrated direct anti-H. pylori bactericidal activity in vitro and in clinical studies, including activity against antibiotic-resistant strains. A 2014 World Journal of Gastroenterology review of natural treatments for H. pylori infection identified propolis as one of the natural agents with clinical research evidence. Its principal constituents include CAPE and flavonoids with anti-inflammatory and antibacterial actions.
Propolis is a bee-derived resin rich in flavonoids (pinocembrin, galangin, caffeic acid phenethyl ester) with potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Multiple human RCTs demonstrate propolis reduces inflammatory biomarkers, improves glycemic control, and supports immune function in adults — all highly relevant to healthy aging.
Propolis, a resinous bee-derived substance, has shown virucidal activity against both HSV-1 and HSV-2 in vitro, including acyclovir-resistant strains. Multiple clinical trials support topical 3% propolis ointment for herpes labialis and genitalis, with one RCT showing healing in 6.24 vs. 9.77 days vs. placebo. A 2026 meta-analysis of 7 RCTs found propolis/honey outperformed 5% acyclovir cream for lesion resolution.
Bee propolis contains antimicrobial flavonoids (galangin, pinocembrin) and phenolic acids (caffeic acid, ferulic acid) with documented activity against oral microbiome pathogens including S. mutans, E. faecalis, and oral Candida. In vitro studies confirm inhibition of cariogenic and periodontopathic species. A clinical toothpaste RCT combining propolis and tea tree oil demonstrated stabilization of oral bacterial microflora.
Bee propolis has demonstrated antiparasitic activity in vitro against Giardia lamblia, Toxoplasma gondii, and Leishmania species, and is listed by EBSCO Research Starters among traditional herbs proposed for intestinal parasite treatment.
A resinous substance produced by bees, propolis (bee propolis) has documented antimicrobial, antiviral, and immunostimulatory properties. Clinical evidence shows propolis reduces duration and severity of respiratory infections. It contains flavonoids and caffeic acid esters that modulate innate immunity, supporting post-illness recovery.
Propolis has been tested in an RCT as adjunct treatment for hospitalized COVID-19 patients and shown antiviral and immunomodulatory activity in both preclinical and clinical studies. A 2022 PMC systematic review confirmed propolis has broad-spectrum antiviral effects in vitro/in vivo and modulates cytokine production relevant to post-viral recovery. It has been proposed to reduce inflammatory processes by PAK1 inhibition.
Bee propolis has documented antimicrobial and antibiofilm activity against bacteria isolated from patients with chronic rhinosinusitis. A 2023 in vitro study (PMC 10674846) showed NAC/propolis combinations effective against biofilms from chronic sinusitis pathogens. Traditional use across cultures for respiratory infections is established.
Bee propolis has direct randomized controlled trial evidence for sore throat. A monocentric, double-blind, placebo-controlled RCT (Esposito et al., 2020, n=122 adults) found a standardized propolis oral spray produced significantly greater remission of sore throat, muffled voice, and throat swelling than placebo in mild upper respiratory tract infections. A PMC systematic review confirmed clinical benefit for respiratory viral disease symptoms.
Propolis has direct clinical evidence for tonsillopharyngitis treatment in children. An open-label RCT (n=130 children) using a supplement with honey, propolis, Pelargonium sidoides, and zinc showed significantly improved tonsillitis severity scores versus standard care alone. A 2004 RCT demonstrated >50% reduction in tonsillopharyngitis incidence with an echinacea-propolis-vitamin C combination. Propolis is active against Streptococcus pyogenes strains.
Propolis, a resinous bee product rich in flavonoids and phenolic acids, has been investigated for tooth remineralization. In vitro studies show that propolis oil enhances enamel microhardness after demineralization, and propolis-enriched xylitol chewing gum enhances intrafibrillar biomineralization of demineralized dentin. Propolis also inhibits cariogenic bacteria, reducing acid-driven demineralization.
Bee propolis has demonstrated gastroprotective activity in rodent models of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers, reducing ulcer index and myeloperoxidase activity. Artepillin C and flavonoids (galangin, caffeic acid phenethyl ester) in propolis inhibit xanthine oxidase and reduce neutrophil infiltration in gastric mucosa. It is listed among proposed natural treatments for gastritis/ulcer in EBSCO Research Starters.
Bee propolis is a resinous mixture with documented broad-spectrum antiviral activity in vitro, in vivo, and in preliminary clinical trials. Key bioactives including quercetin, kaempferol, apigenin, caffeic acid, and chrysin inhibit SARS-CoV-2 spike-ACE2 interaction, reduce viral RNA synthesis, and modulate cytokine production. Multiple in vitro and clinical studies support respiratory antiviral applications.
Propolis (bee propolis) is a resinous hive substance with well-documented antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and wound-healing properties confirmed by multiple preclinical studies and some clinical trials. It shortens healing time, reduces scar formation, promotes wound contraction, and stimulates epithelialization.
Propolis is a resinous beehive product used in traditional medicine across many cultures for oral antisepsis and breath improvement. It contains flavonoids, phenolic acids, and caffeic acid esters with documented antimicrobial activity against oral pathogens. Traditional use for halitosis is documented in Middle Eastern, Eastern European, and Brazilian folk medicine. Some in vitro studies confirm propolis inhibits Streptococcus mutans and other oral anaerobes relevant to bad breath.
Bee propolis has traditional use across Mediterranean and Eastern European folk medicine for throat infections and upper respiratory conditions. Its polyphenols (CAPE, galangin, quercetin) demonstrate antimicrobial, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory activities. Some clinical evidence supports reduction in URTI incidence and severity in children.
Body systems that Propolis may help support.
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