Pterocarpus marsupium

Pterocarpus marsupium (Indian Kino Tree / Vijayasar)

1. Identity: Botanical Classification, Common Names, and Natural Distribution

Pterocarpus marsupium, also known as Malabar kino or Indian kino, is a medium-to-large, deciduous tree that can grow up to 31 m (102 ft) tall. It is native to India (where it occurs in parts of the Western Ghats in the Karnataka–Kerala region and in the forests of Central India), Nepal, and Sri Lanka.

Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. (Fabaceae) is one of the most valuable multipurpose forest trees in India and Sri Lanka, cultivated for quality wood as well as pharmaceutically bioactive compounds, especially from the stem bark and heartwood. The plant belongs to the family Leguminosae and commonly grows in the hilly regions of central and peninsular India.

The species is known by a large number of vernacular names across the languages and traditions of the Indian subcontinent:

• Sanskrit: Vijayasara, Beejaka, Asana, Pitasara, Bandhukavriksha
• Hindi: Vijaysar, Bijasal
• Sinhala (Sri Lanka): Gammalu
• Tamil/South India: Venga, Vengai
• English: Indian Kino Tree, Malabar Kino

The tree is 15–30 metres high. Its leaves are compound and imparipinnate; leaflets are 5–7 in number, oval, blunt, emarginated, and glabrous, with round, smooth panicles that are terminal and large. A blood-red resinous exudate from the trunk is among the plant parts used in Ayurvedic medicine.

1.1 Medicinal Parts and Common Preparations

Among its various parts, the heartwood, bark, leaves, and gum resin have been most frequently employed for medicinal purposes. The medicinal parts of the tree include the heartwood, bark, and gum-resin, all of which are rich in flavonoids, tannins, and polyphenols, including a notable compound called epicatechin.

Extracts of the plant have been prepared using many methods including infusion, maceration, decoction, and percolation. The most traditional preparation involves soaking heartwood in water: traditionally, Vijaysar wood pieces are soaked overnight in water and the infused water is consumed the next morning. The latex (gum) of the tree is a popular remedy used in Sri Lanka for diabetes.

Modern commercial preparations include standardised dry heartwood powder, aqueous and ethanolic bark/heartwood extracts, and standardised extract products — most notably Silbinol®, a standardized extract containing 90% pterostilbene from P. marsupium heartwood.

2. Traditional and Historical Use

2.1 Ayurveda (India)

Recognized as early as 1000 BC, P. marsupium has been used in Ayurveda for various ailments, notably diabetes. Historical use in Ayurveda spans over 2,000 years, emphasising its long-standing medicinal applications. Ayurvedic texts including the Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita document its use in lowering excess Kapha and balancing blood sugar.

Vijaysar is mentioned as a powerful rejuvenator and a treatment for a number of metabolic illnesses in traditional Ayurvedic texts. In classical Ayurvedic terminology, the conditions for which it was prescribed include Madhumeha, Prameha, Sthoulya, Kustha, Udarda, Visarpa, Shwitra, Shotha, Palitya, Abhighataja Vedana, Bhagna, Atisar, Pravahika, Krimi, Dantashoola, Raktapitta, and Raktavikara — terms corresponding to diabetes, obesity, skin diseases, oedema, premature greying, fractures, diarrhoea, helminthiasis, toothache, and blood disorders respectively.

It has been traditionally used to treat Madhumeha (diabetes), obesity, diarrhoea, eczema, and menstrual disorders. It is a significant source of tannins and flavonoids and has been used as an astringent, anodyne, cooling, and regenerating agent, and for the treatment of leprosy, leucoderma, toothache, fractures, diarrhoea, passive haemorrhage, dysentery, bruises, and diabetes. It is also recorded for use in rheumatoid arthritis, gout, diabetic anaemia, indigestion, asthma, cough, discolouration of hair, bronchitis, ophthalmic complications, elephantiasis, and erysipelas.

In Ayurveda, Vijaysar is traditionally considered to balance Kapha and Pitta doshas. It is considered a Rasayana herb — a rejuvenative category — known for promoting internal balance and strength.

2.2 Siddha, Unani, and Homeopathic Systems

The role of P. marsupium is found in Ayurveda, Homeopathic, and Unani systems of medicine. In Siddha and Unani medicine, Pterocarpus was used for similar purposes to Ayurveda, especially for its cooling, blood-purifying, and astringent effects.

2.3 Traditional Use in Sri Lanka

Known as Gammalu in Sinhala, P. marsupium is indigenous to Sri Lanka, India, and Nepal. The latex (gum) of the tree is a popular remedy used in Sri Lanka for diabetes, a usage distinct from the heartwood infusion more common in India. Investigations focused on the antidiabetic effects of P. marsupium latex have demonstrated strong inhibitory effects of the latex on α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities and on protein glycation.

2.4 Traditional Use of the Kino Gum-Resin

The tree's gum-resin, known as "kino," was used to treat diarrhoea, dysentery, and skin wounds due to its astringent and antimicrobial properties. Extracts of the leaves, flowers, and gum of the tree have been used traditionally for the treatment of diarrhoea, toothaches, fever, and urinary and skin infections, while extracts of the bark have long been regarded as useful for the therapy of diabetes.

3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Phytochemical studies reveal that the plant is rich in flavonoids, stilbenes, tannins, and other phenolic compounds, with epicatechin and pterostilbene identified as major bioactive constituents.

3.1 Primary Polyphenolic Constituents

Pterocarpus marsupium is rich in polyphenols such as marsupin, pterosupin, epicatechin, pterostilbene and flavonoids pteroside, pteroisoauroside, carsupin, liquiritigenin, and marsupol, all of which are considered responsible for its beneficial health effects.

Other constituents include pterocarpol, a novel C-glucoside identified as 1-(2′,6′-dihydroxyphenyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside, pterocarposide, Vijayosin, marsuposide, flavon C-glucoside, C-β-D-glucopyranosyl-2,6-dihydroxyl benzene, β-eudesmol, triterpene alcohol, and erythrodiol-3-monoacetate.

Phytochemical testing has also confirmed the presence of carbohydrates, glycosides, saponins, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids, phenolic compounds, fixed oils and fats from various parts of the plant.

Key compounds and their chemical classifications are:

• (−)-Epicatechin: A flavan-3-ol (flavonoid). Found in the bark of P. marsupium, it is an anti-diabetic compound that promotes regeneration of pancreatic β-cells.
• Pterostilbene: A bioactive phytochemical from the tree bark and one of its many flavonoids and polyphenolic components. It is a 3,5-dimethoxy analogue of resveratrol and is synthesized by plants as a phytoalexin in response to stress, infection, and UV exposure.
• Marsupsin and Pterosupin: Oleo-resin exudates of this species contain these unique active constituents, along with vijayosin and pterostilbene, all of which show a wide range of pharmacological activity.
• Liquiritigenin: A flavanone constituent, noted for its contribution to significant reduction of serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL- and VLDL-cholesterol levels in experimental models.
• Kinotannic acid / Kino-tannins: The plant is also enriched with kinoin and kinotannic acid, kino-red, β-eudesmol, marsupol, marsupinol, and other compounds.

4. Established and Proposed Mechanisms of Action

4.1 Antidiabetic Mechanisms

Extracts from various parts of P. marsupium exhibit antidiabetic properties, including inhibition of α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes, augmentation of insulin secretion, and enhancement of insulin sensitivity.

Pancreatic β-cell regeneration is regarded as a particularly distinctive mechanism. A flavonoid fraction (XE) extracted from the bark was found to effectively reverse alloxan-induced changes in blood sugar level and in the β-cell population in the pancreas; it also showed a protective effect when given prior to alloxan administration. The novel action on pancreatic beta-cells and absence of acute toxicity was identified as potentially offering new hope to diabetics.

Research has shown that P. marsupium reversed damage to the beta cells and actually repopulated the islets, causing a nearly complete restoration of normal insulin secretion. (−)-Epicatechin not only regenerated pancreatic β-cells but also exhibited other activities including promoting insulin release, converting pro-insulin to insulin, facilitating oxygen uptake in fat cells and other tissues, and converting glucose to glycogen, in animal models.

Epicatechin, pterostilbene, marsupin, and pterosupin present in the plant have been reported to enhance insulin sensitivity.

In preclinical studies, aqueous extract of P. marsupium at 1 g/kg p.o. was assessed for its effect on glycogen levels of insulin-dependent (skeletal muscle and liver) and insulin-independent tissues (kidneys and brain) and on enzymes such as glucokinase, hexokinase, and phosphofructokinase. Administration of P. marsupium led to decreases in blood glucose levels by 38% and 60% on the 15th and 30th day of the experiment.

Elevated inflammatory cytokine TNF-α in untreated diabetic rats, due to chronic systemic inflammation, was significantly decreased (P < 0.001) by aqueous extract at both doses tested. This anti-inflammatory mechanism may be relevant to the improvement of insulin resistance.

4.2 Hypolipidaemic Mechanisms

Serum lipid levels in rats with hyperlipidaemia induced by diet or by Triton were assessed after oral administration of EtOAc extract of P. marsupium heartwood and its flavonoid constituents. Administration of EtOAc extract for 14 consecutive days produced a significant reduction of serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL- and VLDL-cholesterol levels without any significant effect on HDL-cholesterol levels. Liquiritigenin and pterosupin were able to effect a significant fall in serum cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and atherogenic index, with pterosupin additionally effective in lowering serum triglyceride.

4.3 Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

Studies have been reported to demonstrate the plant's ability as a specific COX-2 inhibitor. Pterostilbene, the active molecule from the bark of the Pterocarpus marsupium tree, possesses antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

4.4 Hepatoprotective Mechanisms

Studies have evaluated the hepatoprotective activity of P. marsupium stem bark extracts against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced hepatotoxicity in male Wistar rats. CCl₄ was administered at 0.1 ml/kg/day for 10 days, and methanol and aqueous extracts of stem bark were administered to the experimental rats at 25 mg/kg/day, p.o. for 14 days. The hepatoprotective effect was evaluated by assay of liver function biochemical parameters including total bilirubin, serum protein, alanine aminotransaminase, aspartate aminotransaminase, and alkaline phosphatase. In methanol extract-treated animals, the toxic effect of CCl₄ was controlled significantly by restoration of the levels of serum bilirubin, protein, and enzymes as compared to the normal and standard drug silymarin-treated groups.

5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Glycaemic Control and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

This is the area of greatest research depth for P. marsupium, with both animal/in vitro and human clinical evidence available, though the latter remains limited in scope and methodological rigor.

Animal and In Vitro Evidence

A PMC-published study investigated the effect of aqueous extract of P. marsupium Roxb. on elevated inflammatory cytokine TNF-α in type 2 diabetic rats. Type 2 diabetes was induced by administering streptozotocin (90 mg/kg, i.p.) in a neonatal rat model. Aqueous extract at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg was given orally for 4 weeks. After treatment, parameters including fasting blood glucose, postprandial blood glucose, and TNF-α in serum were analyzed. The extract at both doses decreased fasting and postprandial blood glucose in type 2 diabetic rats. The 200 mg/kg dose had a more pronounced effect on postprandial hyperglycaemia.

A study examined the combined effects of glibenclamide (GLB) and P. marsupium extract for treating hyperglycaemia in mice. Alloxan-induced hyperglycaemia and other adverse effects were nearly normalized by GLB and P. marsupium co-treatment, as evidenced by marked suppression of glucose, triglyceride, total cholesterol, lipid peroxidation, and lipid hydroperoxides with an increase in antioxidant status and liver glycogen content. The positive effects were more pronounced when both GLB and PM were given together compared to either drug alone. The presence of epicatechin, the major phytoconstituent of the PM extract as confirmed by HPLC, was identified as responsible for its antioxidative and glucose-lowering activities.

In a study using 48 male albino rats divided into 6 groups, treatment groups received crude aqueous percolation or optimised ultrasound-assisted (UAE) and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) extracts at 250 mg/1000g body weight. In acute treatment, reduction of blood glucose level was statistically significant with oral administration of UAE and percolation aqueous extracts to hyperglycaemic rats. In sub-acute treatment, the UAE aqueous extract led to consistent and statistically significant (p < 0.001) reduction in blood glucose levels.

Human Clinical Evidence

The most significant clinical data comes from trials conducted under the auspices of the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR). The ICMR Study Group conducted a flexible-dose, double-blind, multicentre, randomised controlled trial evaluating the efficacy of Vijayasar (P. marsupium) in the treatment of newly diagnosed patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. This ICMR study revealed that the hypoglycaemic effects of Vijayasar are comparable to those of tolbutamide. The study showed that Vijayasar is an effective blood glucose-lowering traditional Indian plant agent, its glycaemic effect being comparable to that of tolbutamide in treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes and free from any significant side effect.

An additional study published in the International Journal of Basic & Clinical Pharmacology compared the blood glucose-lowering effect of P. marsupium as add-on therapy with oral hypoglycaemic drugs in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, and evaluated adverse events. The study was a prospective, open, non-randomised, interventional efficacy and safety study. The duration of treatment with P. marsupium as add-on therapy with glimepiride+metformin or glimepiride+metformin+pioglitazone was 12 weeks with 4 weekly clinical attendances, with the dosage of P. marsupium wood powder being 2–4 g/day. At the end of 12 weeks of treatment, mean fasting blood glucose, postprandial blood glucose, and glycosylated haemoglobin were compared with baseline. The calculated p value for all parameters was <0.05, indicating statistical significance. P. marsupium was reported to be highly effective and free from any adverse events in this context.

Aqueous extracts of P. marsupium Linn bark have been shown to exert hypoglycaemic/antihyperglycaemic effects in experimental as well as clinical settings.

Strength of evidence: Pharmacological investigations have demonstrated antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, and wound-healing properties, providing scientific support for traditional applications. Despite substantial preclinical evidence, clinical studies on P. marsupium remain limited, and issues related to standardisation and dosage persist. The ICMR multicentre RCT is the strongest single human trial to date; however, no large-scale, adequately powered, long-duration phase III RCTs have been published.

5.2 Dyslipidaemia and Lipid Metabolism

In addition to antidiabetic properties, P. marsupium is also reported to reduce obesity, hyperlipidaemia, and inflammation. The primary hypolipidaemic evidence comes from animal studies. In a rat model, oral administration of EtOAc extract of P. marsupium heartwood for 14 consecutive days produced a significant reduction of serum triglyceride, total cholesterol, and LDL- and VLDL-cholesterol levels without any significant effect on the level of HDL-cholesterol. The isolated flavonoid constituents marsupsin, pterosupin, and liquiritigenin were individually tested, with liquiritigenin and pterosupin able to effect a significant fall in serum cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, and atherogenic index, while pterosupin was additionally effective in lowering serum triglyceride.

P. marsupium extract also shows promising results in hypertriglyceridaemia.

Strength of evidence: Predominantly preclinical (animal). No large human RCTs specifically for dyslipidaemia have been identified in the peer-reviewed literature reviewed.

5.3 Antioxidant Activity

The hypoglycaemic effects, antidyslipidaemic effects, antioxidative effects, and safety of the P. marsupium heartwood and the bark have been scientifically validated using a multitude of in vitro and in vivo studies. Epicatechin, a flavonoid, along with marsupsin, pterosupin, pterostilbene, and 5,7,2–4 tetrahydroxy isoflavone 6-6 glucoside, a potent antioxidant, are assumed to be the main compounds responsible for anti-diabetic and antioxidant effects.

In the clinical safety trial of Silbinol® (standardised P. marsupium extract, 90% pterostilbene), the serum antioxidant profile was not significantly different between treatment groups, although glutathione levels were relatively higher in the treated group.

Strength of evidence: Strong in vitro evidence; limited in vivo and no dedicated large-scale human antioxidant trials. Most antioxidant data is derived from in vitro assays and from sub-analyses of diabetes-focused studies.

5.4 Anti-inflammatory Activity

Pterocarpus marsupium exerts COX-2 inhibitory activity, which underpins a relevant anti-inflammatory mechanism. Phytochemical and anti-inflammatory activity of extracts from stem wood of P. marsupium have been systematically evaluated in published PMC studies. Results at the preclinical level are positive; dedicated human anti-inflammatory clinical trials have not been identified in the reviewed literature.

5.5 Hepatoprotection

P. marsupium has been scientifically reported for hypolipidaemic, hepatoprotective, anti-ulcer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-diabetic activity. The hepatoprotective evidence is based on CCl₄-induced hepatotoxicity models in rats, described in Section 4.4 above. The plant finds its use as a hepatoprotective agent in both traditional practice and preclinical research. No specific human hepatoprotection RCTs have been identified in the reviewed literature.

5.6 Anti-cataract Activity

P. marsupium exerts anticataract activity, an effect documented in preclinical studies relating to diabetic cataract prevention. P. marsupium extract shows promising results in cataract management in animal models, but this area has not been confirmed in human clinical trials.

5.7 Antimicrobial Activity

P. marsupium has antibacterial and antioxidant effects. Antimicrobial activity from stem wood extracts of P. marsupium has been evaluated alongside antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic activities. Current evidence is preclinical and in vitro; no human antimicrobial trials have been identified.

6. Body Systems and Health Areas Associated with P. marsupium

Different parts of the plant (wood, bark, and leaves) have a wide range of beneficial properties and possess numerous health benefits including antidiabetic/antihyperglycaemic, anti-hyperinsulinaemic, cardiotonic, anti-cataract, hepatoprotective, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities.

• Endocrine / Metabolic System: Blood glucose regulation, insulin secretion enhancement, β-cell regeneration, insulin resistance reduction.
• Cardiovascular System: Cardioprotective properties and lipid modulation (reduction of total cholesterol, LDL, triglycerides).
• Hepatic System: Hepatoprotective activity against chemically-induced liver damage.
• Gastrointestinal System: Traditional use for treating diarrhoea and ulcer.
• Ocular System: Potential anti-cataract effects, particularly in the context of diabetic complications.
• Immune / Inflammatory System: COX-2 inhibition and TNF-α modulation.
• Skin: Used to treat skin diseases in traditional medicine.

7. Dosage Forms and Doses Reported in Studies

The following dosages are reported as they appear in the source literature; they are not recommendations.

• Heartwood powder (human, oral): A clinical study used a dosage of P. marsupium wood powder of 2–4 g/day as add-on therapy for 12 weeks.
• Aqueous extract (animal, oral): In a 4-week rat study, aqueous extract of P. marsupium at a dose of 100 and 200 mg/kg was given orally.
• Aqueous extract (animal, oral): A separate study used aqueous extract of PM at 1 g/kg p.o.
• Alloxan mouse model: Animals received PM extract at 150 mg/kg body weight.
• Standardised pterostilbene extract (Silbinol®, human, oral): A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled safety study used a standardised P. marsupium extract (PME) containing 90% pterostilbene at 200 mg per day. In the trial, 60 healthy adult participants were randomised to receive PME 100 mg or placebo capsule twice a day for two months.
• Short-term safety study (human): A short-term safety study established tolerability of P. marsupium extract containing pterostilbene at 450 mg once daily or 225 mg twice daily for 14 days in five subjects per arm.
• Hepatoprotective study (animal): Methanol and aqueous extracts of P. marsupium stem bark were administered to experimental rats at 25 mg/kg/day, p.o. for 14 days.

8. Safety Considerations and Interactions

8.1 Clinical Safety Data

In a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study evaluating a standardised P. marsupium extract (PME) containing 90% pterostilbene at 200 mg/day in 60 healthy adults receiving PME 100 mg or placebo twice daily for two months: hematological, lipid, glycaemic, thyroid profiles, and liver and renal functions remained within the normal range in all participants, with no difference between PME and placebo. No serious adverse events were observed in any participant throughout the study period.

The ICMR multicentre clinical study concluded that Vijayasar is free from any significant side effects in the context of treating type 2 diabetes. Similarly, P. marsupium as add-on therapy in the 12-week human trial was reported to be free from any adverse event.

8.2 Additive Hypoglycaemic Risk

The most relevant interaction concern is an additive or synergistic effect with conventional antidiabetic drugs. In an animal study, ALX-induced hyperglycaemia was nearly normalised by GLB and P. marsupium co-treatment, and the positive effects were more pronounced when both drugs were given together compared to either drug administered alone. This synergistic blood-glucose-lowering effect, documented in preclinical settings, raises the possibility of hypoglycaemia when P. marsupium is combined with established antidiabetic medications.

8.3 Presence of Potentially Bioactive Minor Constituents

Pterocarpus marsupium contains 2,3,6-trimethyl-1,4-naphthoquinone (also called 2,3,6-trimethylnaphthalene-1,4-dione or TM-NQ), which, in vitro, is a reversible monoamine oxidase inhibitor occurring in tobacco leaf, and may cause skin, eye and respiratory irritation. The clinical relevance of this constituent at typical oral doses has not been established in current literature.

8.4 Latex / Gum Safety

Investigations focusing on the antidiabetic effects and possible toxicity of the P. marsupium latex are described as essential to validate its efficacy and safety. There is a gap in the toxicological literature regarding the gum-resin preparation in particular.

8.5 Conservation and Adulteration Risk

Propagation of the tree in natural conditions is difficult due to the low percentage of seed germination coupled with overexploitation of this species. This overexploitation has ultimately led to the inclusion of P. marsupium on the list of endangered plant species. The investigation of genetic diversity of P. marsupium is important not only for species conservation but also for the development and utilisation of germplasm for improvement of this valuable but threatened medicinal plant. Efforts for the conservation and propagation of this tree species will ultimately lead to the development of policies to make the species available for general use at a low cost. The endangered status of this species has implications for the quality, authenticity, and sustainability of commercial supplies, and increases the risk of product adulteration.

8.6 Evidence Gaps in Safety

Clinical studies are limited, necessitating further investigation into pharmacological applications and safety evaluations. Long-term safety, paediatric dosing, use in pregnancy and lactation, and drug–drug interaction profiles have not been systematically characterised in the peer-reviewed clinical literature reviewed.

References

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