Chen pi

Chen Pi (陈皮): Aged Tangerine Peel — A Comprehensive Reference

1. Identity and Botanical Description

Names and Taxonomy

Chen Pi (also romanized as chenpi or chimpi) is sun-dried mandarin orange peel used as a traditional seasoning in Chinese cooking and traditional medicine. Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium (CRP), commonly referred to as Chenpi (陈皮) in Chinese, is an orange-colored Citrus reticulata Blanco fruit peel that has been most frequently used as a qi-regulating drug in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) prescriptions for clinical treatment since thousands of years in China.

The herb carries several formal designations:

• Chinese / Pinyin name: 陈皮 (Chén Pí)
• Botanical source: Citrus reticulata Blanco (family Rutaceae) and its cultivated varieties
• Pharmacopoeial name: Pericarpium Citri Reticulatae (or Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium, abbreviated CRP)
• Common English names: Aged tangerine peel, dried mandarin orange peel, dried citrus peel
• Alternate Chinese names: Ju Pi (橘皮), Guang Chen Pi (廣陳皮), Xinhui Pi (新會皮)

The name "Chen Pi" literally means "aged peel." Its common name is 'ju pi,' meaning mandarin orange peel. The most highly prized Chen Pi comes from Xinhui, Guangdong in southern China, known as Guang Chenpi (or chachi/chazhi). Other varieties mentioned in the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (PPRC) include Dahong-pao, Unshiu, and Tangerina.

The Aging Process and Quality Grades

The character "chén" literally means "aged" and typically commercially available Chen Pi is aged for at least one year; better quality is aged for three years, and the finest grade is ten years old or more. The diverse pharmacological effects of Chen Pi are primarily attributed to its rich composition of bioactive compounds, particularly flavonoids, which include hesperidin, nobiletin, and tangeretin. The quality and efficacy of Guang Chenpi are intrinsically linked to its traditional processing method, which mandates a minimum three-year aging period.

Research employing widely targeted metabolomics, microbial amplicon sequencing, and fermentation assays investigated the microbiome's influence on the peel's flavonoid profile over 0–19 years of storage. Correlation analysis revealed that the accumulation of polymethoxyflavones (PMFs) was closely linked to specific bacterial and fungal communities. Solid-state fermentation showed that Bacillus subtilis N18-1 enhanced the content of certain PMFs, while Aspergillus tubingensis P21-1 reduced them.

Research has demonstrated that low temperature and low humidity conditions (4°C ± 2°C / 35–40%) hinder the aging process of Guang Chenpi, while prolonged exposure to high temperature or high humidity (35°C ± 2°C / >85%) accelerates the transformation and formation of ferulic acid by 7-fold but significantly decreases key components such as total flavonoids.

Fresh tangerine peel should not be substituted for Chen Pi, as it may carry pesticide and preservative residues and lacks the beneficial chemical transformation that occurs during the aging process.

Common Forms and Preparations

In traditional Chinese medicine, the dried peel of the fruit is used, often aged (sometimes until it turns black in color) and sometimes even toasted in a wok. A decoction is then made from the peel in combination with other herbs. Both the outermost peel (exocarp) and the inner peel (pericarp) are used for different specific medicinal purposes.

Common preparations and forms include:

• Dried whole or cut peel: Steeped or decocted in hot water to make teas or herbal decoctions
• Powdered extract / granules: Concentrated extract powder used in TCM formula
• Pill or tablet form: Tangerine peel is available in pill form.
• Liquid extracts: The shredded (dried) peel is often available for purchase, as are both aged and fresh extracts, which are known to have different effects.
• Essential oil: Aromatherapy relies on the essential oil extracted from the peel. Depending on the precise type of fruit used, the oil can range from yellow-orange to orange in color, and its chemical properties and uses also vary.
• Fermented preparation (Jiaosu): A fermented health product derived from tangerine peel, known as Chenpi Jiaosu (CPJS), has demonstrated lipid-modulating properties.
• Earth-fried (Tuchao) form: Earth-frying strengthens Chen Pi's ability to warm the Middle Burner, harmonize the Stomach, and stop vomiting. It also significantly increases the extractable content of the key flavonoid hesperidin by roughly 40%.

Traditional Chinese herbal medicine uses the alcohol extracts of several citrus peels, including those extracted from mandarin orange and bitter orange.

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2. Traditional and Historical Use

Origins and Historical Timeline

Chen Pi has been used in TCM for centuries. Its earliest record appears in the Shennong Bencao Jing (Shennong's Classic of Herbal Medicine), where it is listed as a top-grade herb for relieving chest congestion and aiding digestion.

The practice of using citrus peels in traditional Chinese medicine originated in the Song dynasty and has lasted for seven hundred years. Chenpi was of high popularity through the Ming and Qing dynasties, and was shipped to foreign provinces by businessmen from Xinhui in Guangdong.

Chinese physician Li Shizhen in the Ming Dynasty detailed its properties in the Compendium of Materia Medica (Bencao Gangmu), noting its ability to regulate qi, strengthen the spleen, clear phlegm, and counteract alcohol toxicity. Later texts like Bencao Beiyao and Bencao Zhengyi expanded its applications.

A famous Qing dynasty doctor named Ye Gui (1667–1746) prescribed chenpi as one of the ingredients in 'Erchen Tang,' a decoction consisting of two old drugs.

Traditional Therapeutic Categories and Uses

Chen Pi is categorized in Traditional Chinese Medicine as a qi regulator, meaning it helps energy overcome obstacles to remove blockages inside the body. It is classified as warm, sweet, pungent, and aromatic.

Key traditional indications documented in TCM classical literature include:

• Digestive regulation: The extensive traditional use of Chen Pi over thousands of years included treating nausea, vomiting, indigestion, and diarrhea.
• Qi stagnation: Chen Pi is used to address Qi stagnation, which can manifest as symptoms such as distension, fullness, and pain in the chest or abdomen.
• Respiratory applications: Chenpi has expectorant activities and broncho-dilative effects, and is usually used to treat upper respiratory tract infections in traditional Chinese medicinal formulas.
• Phlegm-dampness: Chen Pi and Ban Xia (Pinellia) together form one of the most fundamental pairings in Chinese medicine for resolving phlegm and dampness. Chen Pi regulates Qi and dries dampness, while Ban Xia powerfully dries dampness, transforms phlegm, and descends rebellious Qi. Together, they embody the principle of 'treating phlegm by first regulating Qi.'

This combination is the core pair in Er Chen Tang (Two-Aged Decoction), one of the foundational formulas of classical Chinese herbal medicine.

Chenpi is also used in the traditional medicines of other Asian countries such as Japan, where it is called Chinpi. In Japan, Chenpi is prescribed as an herbal medicine for inflammation, allergy, and hepatopathy.

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3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds

Primary Bioactive Classes

Studies show that the two most bioactive components of CRP are flavonoids and volatile oils. CRP is rich in diverse chemical constituents, including volatile components, flavonoids, alkaloids, and polysaccharides.

Flavonoids

Chenpi contains volatile oils including the chemical compounds nobiletin, hesperidin, neohesperidin, tangeretin, citromitin, synephrine, carotene, cryptoxanthin, inositol, vitamin B1, and vitamin C.

The principal flavonoid subclasses are:

• Hesperidin — a flavanone glycoside. Hesperidin is an abundant flavanone glycoside in citrus fruits and has been reported to possess a wide range of biological activities; however, it has poor bioavailability. Research has demonstrated that different varieties of Citrus reticulata contain nearly the same levels of hesperidin. The content of hesperidin in Chenpi extract has been measured at approximately 11.4%.
• Nobiletin — a polymethoxyflavone (PMF). Nobiletin (5,6,7,8,3′,4′-hexamethoxyflavone) is a flavonoid isolated from citrus peel. It is a naturally occurring flavonoid that is extracted from citrus peel and has been found to possess a favorable safety record and a number of pharmacological properties, such as anti-inflammatory effects, antitumor, and neuroprotective capabilities.
• Tangeretin — another PMF. Pericarpium Citri Reticulatae 'Chachi' (PCR-C), rich in polymethoxyflavones (PMFs), has potential anticancer bioactivity and its quality is improved during storage.
• Naringenin / Naringin, Hesperetin, Neohesperidin: Additional flavanone aglycones and glycosides present in variable quantities across cultivars and aging stages.

Volatile Oils

The essential oil of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium has D-Limonene (76.51%), α-Pinene (2.68%), and Linalool (2.11%) as its primary constituents. Among the primary chemical constituents of the oil are limonene (as much as 90%), geraniol, citral, and citronella.

Alkaloids and Other Compounds

Chen Pi contains synephrine, a sympathomimetic amine. Additional minor constituents include carotenoids (carotene, cryptoxanthin), inositol, and polysaccharides.

Effect of Aging on Chemical Profile

A comprehensive review provides an overview of the bioactive compounds present in CRP, with a specific focus on polymethoxyflavones and their transformations during the aging process. The prolonged storage allows for continuous and gradual oxidative transformations and concentration of compounds, ultimately resulting in the development of the characteristic complex aroma, rich color, and enhanced medicinal properties.

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4. Established Mechanisms of Action

Anti-inflammatory Mechanisms

The underlying mechanism responsible for the anti-inflammatory effects of CRP primarily involves the inhibition of inflammatory factors through signaling pathways, such as mitogen-activated protein kinases and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB).

The essential oil of CRP significantly preserved cell viability and reduced the production of pro-inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and nitric oxide (NO) in LPS-stimulated cell studies.

Tangeretin diminished the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-alpha, prostaglandin E2, interleukin-1 beta, and interleukin-6, and subdued the expression of LPS-induced nitric oxide synthase, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and cyclooxygenase-2 in microglial cells.

Antioxidant Mechanisms

The gastroprotective mechanism of hesperidin has been attributed to free radical scavenging via its metal-chelating and Fenton reaction-inhibiting properties. Research suggests that hesperidin has many beneficial effects, having been found to substantially inhibit LDL oxidation and to be a potent antioxidant with neuroprotective effects.

Gastrointestinal and Prokinetic Mechanisms

CRP contains flavonoids including hesperidin, nobiletin, and tangeretin, and has antibacterial, antioxidant, and antitumor effects that reduce cholesterol, prevent atherosclerosis, and decrease liver injury. In the gastrointestinal tract, the volatile oil components, including limonene, are understood to contribute to the herb's aromatic prokinetic properties.

Lipid-Lowering Mechanisms

KEGG pathway enrichment results revealed that inflammatory and apoptotic pathways are the primary CRP action pathways. CRP mediates the IL-17 signaling pathway by regulating targets such as PTGS2, MAPK3, and CASP3. In the context of lipid metabolism, PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, AMPK signaling pathway, and nuclear factor kappa-B signaling pathway are the main signaling pathways involved in the anti-obesity effect of Chenpi.

Gut Microbiota Modulation

Hesperidin can increase the proportion of Lactobacillus in healthy mice. Citrus polymethoxyflavones can greatly enrich the bacterium Bacteroides in high-fat diet mice. The abundance of Proteobacteria and the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes were decreased by the Chenpi extract in high-fat diet mice.

Cardiovascular Mechanisms

The two most bioactive components of CRP are flavonoids and volatile oils, and its cardiovascular protective effects have attracted considerable research interest due to its hypolipidemic, antiplatelet activity, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects.

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5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use

5.1 Digestive Health

Animal / preclinical evidence: In a rat study, Chenpi extract and hesperidin significantly inhibited aspirin-induced oxidative DNA damage and the bleeding score of the aspirin-induced gastric mucosa was significantly reduced by treatment with both Chenpi extract and hesperidin. Importantly, Chenpi extract and hesperidin did not significantly affect the analgesic effect of aspirin, suggesting that Chenpi extract and hesperidin significantly inhibit aspirin-induced gastric mucosal damage without interfering with the primary action of the co-administered drug.

Microbiome evidence (animal): Citrus reticulatae pericarpium extract was shown to regulate antibiotic-induced gut microbial disorder in juvenile mice and reduce the level of the flora metabolism product TMAO under high-fat diet feeding in adulthood, thereby reducing inflammation levels and improving glycolipid metabolism.

Evidence characterization: Most gastrointestinal evidence remains at the preclinical (animal and in vitro) level. Research on individual TCM herbs is growing but still limited by Western clinical trial standards. Direct human RCT evidence specifically for Chen Pi's gastrointestinal effects is sparse; the traditional use is extensive and consistent, but clinical confirmation in randomized trials is lacking.

5.2 Cardiovascular and Lipid-Lowering Effects

Meta-analytic evidence (hesperidin, the primary flavonoid): A meta-analysis of 9 randomized controlled trials involving 2,414 subjects found that hesperidin (the primary flavonoid in Chen Pi) significantly reduced LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol, and triglycerides compared to placebo. No significant effects were found on blood pressure or HDL cholesterol. The authors concluded that hesperidin supplementation could benefit patients with cardiovascular disease risk factors.

A dose-response meta-analysis of RCTs found that hesperidin supplementation significantly reduced triglycerides, total cholesterol, LDL, TNF-alpha, and systolic blood pressure. The effective dosage was approximately 1,000 mg/day, with interventions longer than 6–8 weeks showing stronger effects on fasting blood glucose and insulin resistance markers.

Chen Pi fermented preparation (clinical pilot): Tangerine Peel Enzyme Drink (CPJS), a fermented health product derived from tangerine peel, demonstrated lipid-modulating properties, and a randomized controlled pilot trial was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of CPJS in improving dyslipidemia and to explore its underlying metabolic and microbiological mechanisms.

Preclinical cardiovascular evidence: Accumulating evidence suggests that CRP and its components are effective in preventing cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, arrhythmia, cardiac hypertrophy, heart failure, and hypertension. In preclinical research, Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium was found to protect against myocardial dysfunction both in vivo and in vitro through a model of isoproterenol-induced chronic heart failure.

Evidence characterization: Hesperidin's lipid effects in humans are the best-supported area of Chen Pi pharmacology, with multiple RCTs and meta-analyses. Evidence for whole CRP (rather than isolated hesperidin) in cardiovascular disease in humans remains more limited.

5.3 Respiratory Health and Expectorant Effects

Chenpi has expectorant activities and broncho-dilative effects, and is usually used to treat upper respiratory tract infections in traditional Chinese medicinal formula. The mature peel of Citrus unshiu (Chenpi) is used for improving bronchial and asthmatic conditions as well as for improving the circulation of cardiac and peripheral blood.

Mechanistic evidence (asthma, animal/cell): Hesperidin was reported to inhibit inflammatory cell infiltration and mucus hypersecretion in a murine model of asthma.

COPD and lung cancer prevention (network pharmacology / animal): Network analysis revealed that the key active components of Chenpi (nobiletin, naringenin, hesperetin) regulate five core targets (AKT1, TP53, IL6, VEGFA, MMP9), with 103 potential pathways identified. Chenpi may prevent COPD and its progression to lung cancer by acting on PI3K-Akt signaling pathway and MAPK signaling pathway. In mice with lung cancer and COPD, treatment with hesperetin dose-dependently improved not only lung tissue injury in COPD but also carcinoma lesions in lung cancer, and hesperetin could suppress the protein expression of AKT1, IL6, VEGFA, MMP9 and up-regulate the protein expression of TP53.

Evidence characterization: Human clinical trial evidence for Chen Pi in respiratory conditions is absent; the available evidence is preclinical (animal models and in vitro) and network pharmacology studies. Traditional use is well-documented.

5.4 Anti-inflammatory Effects

Extensive studies have indicated that Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium (CRP) has immense potential as an anti-inflammatory food. A review has summarized advances in utilizing CRP for the prevention and controlling of inflammation under various pathological conditions.

Among tested citrus essential oils, Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium essential oil (CRPEO) exhibited the most potent anti-inflammatory effects, with D-Limonene (76.51%) as its primary constituent.

Evidence characterization: Anti-inflammatory effects are well-demonstrated at the cellular and animal level. Human clinical studies confirming anti-inflammatory outcomes for CRP specifically are limited.

5.5 Anticancer Properties

Nobiletin (in vitro and animal): Studies show that nobiletin exhibits an anticancer role in various cancers, including skin, prostate, colon, and breast cancer. In ovarian cancer research, nobiletin inhibits secretion of the key angiogenesis mediators Akt, HIF-1α, NF-κB, and VEGF. Decreased levels of HIF-1α were responsible for nobiletin-induced suppression of VEGF, suggesting that nobiletin may be a promising anti-angiogenic agent relevant for therapy of ovarian cancers.

Reviews highlight the anti-lung cancer activity of nobiletin by modulating critical tumor-promoting signaling pathways thereby suppressing cancer cell proliferation, infiltration, and metastasis. Nobiletin triggers cancer cell apoptosis by caspase-3 activation and poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage. However, its medical use is constrained by poor aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability.

Hesperidin (animal): Hesperidin and naringenin in CRP affect the apoptosis pathway by acting on CASP3, BAX, and BCL2.

Evidence characterization: All anticancer evidence for Chen Pi constituents is at the in vitro (cell culture) or animal model level. No human clinical trials have established Chen Pi or its isolated flavonoids as effective cancer treatments. These findings are preliminary and exploratory.

5.6 Liver Protection

CRP contains flavonoids including hesperidin, nobiletin, and tangeretin and has antibacterial, antioxidant, and antitumor effects that reduce cholesterol, prevent atherosclerosis, and decrease liver injury. PTGS2 (cyclooxygenase-2) extensively participates in hepatic inflammation induced by xenobiotics. Hesperidin, nobiletin, and tangeretin are all involved in regulating PTGS2; inhibition of PTGS2 mRNA expression is one of the manifestations of liver injury's acute inflammation resolution.

Evidence characterization: Liver protection data are derived from systems pharmacology analyses and preclinical models. Human clinical evidence is lacking.

5.7 Metabolic and Obesity-Related Effects

A network pharmacology and molecular docking study investigated the anti-obesity phytochemicals and molecular mechanisms of Chenpi. A total of 17 bioactive phytochemicals from Chenpi and 475 related anti-obesity targets were identified. PI3K/Akt, MAPK, AMPK, and NF-κB signaling pathways are the main signaling pathways involved in the anti-obesity effect of Chenpi.

In an in vitro lipid accumulation model, tangeretin effectively suppressed free fatty acid-induced lipid accumulation in HepG2 cells by upregulating the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β signaling pathway.

Evidence characterization: Metabolic data are largely preclinical (network pharmacology and cell models). The clinical pilot trial with fermented Chen Pi product (CPJS) represents an early-stage human study specifically targeting dyslipidemia.

5.8 Neuroprotective Effects

Network pharmacology and experimental validation were utilized to explore the potential mechanisms of PMFs from Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium. The results suggested that PMFs have potential therapeutic value for Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like mice, with the inhibition of neuroinflammation likely being a key mechanism of their anti-AD effects.

Evidence characterization: Neuroprotective evidence is limited to animal models and in vitro studies. No human clinical trials exist for Chen Pi or its PMFs in neurological disease.

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6. Body Systems and Health Areas

With further research in clinical applications, the use of CRP is not limited to the respiratory and gastrointestinal system and has involved many aspects such as cardiovascular, anti-tumor, antioxidation, and anti-inflammatory. The following body systems are the primary areas of research and traditional use:

• Gastrointestinal system: Digestion, bloating, nausea, vomiting, indigestion, gastric mucosal protection
• Respiratory system: Expectorant action, bronchodilation, cough relief, COPD-related effects (preclinical)
• Cardiovascular system: Lipid lowering, antiplatelet, antioxidant, antihypertensive (primarily via hesperidin in RCTs), and anti-atherosclerotic effects
• Hepatic system: Liver injury protection, anti-fibrotic potential (preclinical)
• Metabolic system: Glycolipid metabolism, obesity-related pathways, gut microbiota modulation
• Immune / inflammatory system: NF-κB and MAPK pathway inhibition, reduction of cytokines
• Neurological system: Neuroprotection, neuroinflammation inhibition (preclinical only)
• Oncological (preclinical): Anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects in multiple cancer cell lines

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7. Dosage Forms and Reported Dosages

The following dosages are cited from source-specific studies and authoritative TCM references:

• TCM decoction standard dose: Typically 3–9 grams of dried tangerine peel in TCM formulations.
• Tea / culinary use: For teas or cooking, a small piece (about 1–2 grams) is sufficient.
• Hesperidin supplementation (clinical RCTs): The effective dosage used in meta-analyzed RCTs was approximately 1,000 mg/day, with interventions longer than 6–8 weeks showing stronger effects on fasting blood glucose and insulin resistance markers.
• Protective dosing (animal study): Rats were orally administered Chenpi extract or hesperidin at 20 mg/kg body weight to study protection against aspirin-induced oxidative damage.

Note: No standardized human dose has been established by regulatory pharmacopoeias for Chen Pi as an isolated supplement. Clinical doses cited in the literature refer specifically to the isolated flavonoid hesperidin. The TCM doses of 3–9 g refer to use of the whole dried peel in multi-herb decoctions.

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8. Safety Considerations and Drug Interactions

General Safety Profile

Chen Pi is classified as non-toxic in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and has a long history of safe use as both medicine and food. No toxic components have been identified. There is a class 1 rating from the American Herbal Products Association for Chen Pi supplements (meaning it is safe so long as it is used as directed).

Contraindications and Cautions (TCM Framework)

The main concern with excessive long-term use is its warm, drying nature, which may gradually damage Yin fluids, leading to symptoms such as dry mouth, constipation, or restlessness. This is a property-related caution rather than a toxicity issue.

Dried tangerine peel is warm and drying in nature and has the function of promoting qi circulation. For individuals with qi deficiency or yin deficiency, excessive or long-term consumption may further deplete qi and injure yin, thereby worsening physical weakness.

Adulteration and Substitution Risk

Chen Pi is commonly adulterated or confused with related citrus peels. Fresh tangerine peel is sometimes sold as Chen Pi but lacks the aging process and contains higher volatile oil content with a different chemical profile.

Drug Interactions

Several clinically significant potential interactions have been identified:

• CYP450 enzyme inhibition: Flavonoid and furanocoumarin compounds in Chen Pi have been shown to inhibit CYP450 enzyme activity, which may slow the metabolism of drugs processed through these pathways, including omeprazole and other proton pump inhibitors. Long-term concurrent use requires monitoring of blood drug levels.
• Cardiac glycosides: Chen Pi should not be combined with digitalis-type cardiac glycosides (such as digoxin), as it may enhance their effects and increase toxicity risk.
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs): Chen Pi contains synephrine, a sympathomimetic amine. Concurrent use with monoamine oxidase inhibitors may trigger a hypertensive crisis ("tyramine-like reaction").
• Alpha-adrenergic blockers: Alpha-adrenergic blockers (such as phentolamine or phenoxybenzamine) may counteract the mild pressor effects of Chen Pi's synephrine content, reducing therapeutic efficacy.

Synephrine Safety Considerations

Because Chen Pi contains synephrine, a sympathomimetic compound structurally related to ephedrine, the safety literature on high-dose synephrine supplementation is relevant. A review of 30 case reports describing 35 patients who suffered medical complaints following use of synephrine-containing supplements found that patients most often presented with chest pain, palpitations, syncope, and dizziness, with commonly raised diagnoses including ischaemic heart disease, cardiac arrhythmias, and cerebrovascular disease. It should be noted that these adverse events relate primarily to concentrated synephrine in weight-loss supplements, and the synephrine content of Chen Pi used in traditional doses is substantially lower than concentrated synephrine extracts.

Classical Incompatibilities

Chen Pi (陈皮) Aged tangerine peel / Citrus peel is not listed in either of the two classical incompatibility texts — Shi Ba Fan (Eighteen Antagonisms) or Shi Jiu Wei (Nineteen Mutual Inhibitions).

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References

• Wikipedia — Chenpi
• Yu X, Sun S, Guo Y, et al. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 2018, 220, 265–282. Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium (Chenpi): Botany, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, and pharmacology — ScienceDirect
• Systems Pharmacology Study of the Anti-Liver Injury Mechanism of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium — PMC (Frontiers in Pharmacology, 2021)
• The mechanism and candidate compounds of aged citrus peel (chenpi) preventing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and its progression to lung cancer — PMC
• Effects of Different Treatment Methods of Dried Citrus Peel (Chenpi) on Intestinal Microflora and Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Healthy Mice — PMC
• Protective effects of dried mature Citrus unshiu peel (Chenpi) and hesperidin on aspirin-induced oxidative damage — PMC
• In Vivo pharmacokinetics of hesperidin are affected by treatment with glucosidase-like BglA protein — PMC
• Hesperidin-3′-O-Methylether Is More Potent than Hesperidin in Phosphodiesterase Inhibition and Suppression of Ovalbumin-Induced Airway Hyperresponsiveness — PMC
• Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium protects against isoproterenol-induced chronic heart failure via activation of PPARγ — PMC
• Targeting oncogenic signaling pathways in lung cancer: The emerging role of nobiletin — ScienceDirect (2025)
• ROR activation by Nobiletin enhances antitumor efficacy via suppression of IκB/NF-κB signaling in triple-negative breast cancer — Cell Death & Disease, Nature (2022)
• The flavonoid nobiletin inhibits tumor growth and angiogenesis of ovarian cancers via the Akt pathway — PMC
• Nobiletin Inhibits CD36-Dependent Tumor Angiogenesis, Migration, Invasion, and Sphere Formation — PMC
• Review of Case Reports on Adverse Events Related to Pre-workout Supplements Containing Synephrine — PMC
• Nobiletin from citrus peel: a promising therapeutic agent for liver disease — PMC (2024)
• Mechanism of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium as an Anticancer Agent from the Perspective of Flavonoids: A Review — PMC (Molecules, 2022)
• Identification of Crucial Polymethoxyflavones Tangeretin and 3,5,6,7,8,3′,4′-Heptamethoxyflavone in Pericarpium Citri Reticulatae 'Chachi' during Storage — PMC (Antioxidants, 2022)
• Influence of Storage Environments and Packaging Materials on the Bioactive Compounds in Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium — PMC (Food Science & Nutrition, 2025)
• Effects of Chenpi Jiaosu on serum metabolites and intestinal microflora in a dyslipidemia population: a randomized controlled pilot trial — PMC
• Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium (Chenpi): A multi-efficacy pericarp in treating cardiovascular diseases — ScienceDirect (Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 2022)
• Bioinformatics-Guided Identification of Ethyl Acetate Extract of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium as a Functional Food Ingredient with Anti-Inflammatory Potential — PMC (2022)
• Elucidating the anti-obesity phytochemicals in Chenpi and their molecular mechanisms — Food Science and Human Wellness (2025)
• An updated review summarizing the anticancer potential of flavonoids via targeting NF-kB pathway — Frontiers in Pharmacology (2024)
• Citrus reticulatae pericarpium Extract Decreases the Susceptibility to HFD-Induced Glycolipid Metabolism Disorder — Frontiers in Immunology (2021)
• Chen Pi (Tangerine peel) — Me & Qi TCM Herb Database
• Making Organic Chen Pi for Your Clinic — Mayway Herbs
• Tangerine Peel — Encyclopedia.com
• The Anti-Inflammatory Effects and Molecular Mechanism of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium Essential Oil: A Combined GC-MS and Network Pharmacology Study — PMC (2025)
• Identification and Therapeutic Potential of Polymethoxylated Flavones in Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium for Alzheimer's Disease — Molecules (2025)