Perilla (Perilla frutescens): A Comprehensive Reference
1. Identity and Botanical Classification
Perilla frutescens (L.) Britt. is an annual, erect herbaceous plant of the genus Perilla in the Lamiaceae (mint) family, widely distributed across Asia. It belongs to Kingdom Plantae; Order Lamiales; Family Lamiaceae; Genus Perilla; Species P. frutescens.
The plant is known by many vernacular names across its range of cultivation: shiso in Japan, kkaennip or perilla in Korea, zi su (purple perilla) or su ye in China, and nga-mon in Thailand. Two primary botanical varieties are widely recognized in the scientific literature: Perilla frutescens var. frutescens (the broad-leafed culinary and medicinal variety) and Perilla frutescens var. acuta (a smaller-leafed variety used extensively in pharmacological research).
The plant species P. frutescens exhibits three distinct chemotypes: green, bicolored (green/red), and red (purple), characterized by differential pigmentation patterns during leaf and stem development. Red perilla manifests uniform anthocyanin expression across both adaxial and abaxial leaf surfaces, while the bicolored phenotype displays this chromatic characteristic exclusively on the abaxial surface. The purple and green/purple P. frutescens leaves are considered medicinal, while the green leaves are considered edible.
Often mistaken for basil or mint, Perilla displays an annual growth habit, reaching 30–100 cm in height. Its opposite leaves are ovate with serrated margins, varying from green to a deep purple hue. Tiny, bilabiate flowers bloom in clusters, usually white or pale pink. Adapted to temperate, moist climates, it thrives in well-drained soils and partial sun.
Plant Parts Used
The drug items of the herb in traditional Chinese medicine are dried "Perilla leaf," "Perilla stalk," and "Perilla seed," corresponding to Folium Perillae, Caulis Perillae, and Fructus Perillae in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia (1990), while in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia (1991), Herba Perillae is listed as a drug derived from the leaves and twigs of perilla. Its leaves, stems, and seeds can be used as medicine and edible food, and it is one of the first medicinal and edible plants published by China's Ministry of Health.
Common Preparations and Forms
- P. frutescens is a versatile medicinal and edible plant. Tender leaves are eaten fresh in salads, brewed into herbal tea, or added to soups, while the stems and leaves are commonly used for pickling. In traditional Chinese cuisine, P. frutescens leaves are frequently paired with seafood to alleviate gastrointestinal discomfort. Leaf decoctions are traditionally consumed in summer to reduce heat stress and stimulate appetite. In Japanese and Korean cuisines, fresh P. frutescens leaves are commonly used as a raw vegetable or garnish.
- It is also used as a kitchen herb in salads, sushi, soups, and as a spice, garnish, or food colorant. The seed oil is traditionally used to flavor foods. Perilla also gains market importance in cosmetics, being processed in skin creams, soaps, and dermatological medicinal preparations.
- A variety of P. frutescens-derived products, including P. frutescens seed oil (with an omega-3 content exceeding 60%), functional teas, and alcoholic beverages, have gained prominence in niche markets, benefiting from the plant's GRAS (Generally Recognized As Safe) status.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
China
Perilla frutescens, an annual herb of the Labiatae family, has been cultivated in China for more than 2,000 years. Chinese materia medica texts from the Han dynasty (c. 202 BC–220 AD) cite "zi su" leaves for alleviating coughs and summer-heat symptoms. According to ancient Chinese medicine texts, such as "Essential Prescriptions of the Golden Coffer," P. frutescens has various effects, such as relieving the exterior and dispelling cold, invigorating qi and stomach, regulating qi and widening the middle, lowering qi, and eliminating phlegm. It is considered to have effects in treating cough and lung disease, influenza, fetal stress, and seafood poisoning. In the "Ben Cao Hua Yi," from the Ming Dynasty, it is recorded: "Perilla seed governs descending, with a pungent flavor and fragrant property that governs diffusion. It is used to resolve phlegm and dissipate nodules."
In the Chinese Pharmacopeia 2010, the dried parts of P. frutescens, such as stems (Perillae Caulis), leaves (Perillae Folium), and ripe fruits (Perillae Fructus) are recorded for various therapeutic applications.
Japan
By the 8th century, Japanese Buddhist monks cultivated shiso in temple gardens, incorporating it into pickles and digestive remedies. In Japan, this plant is also used as a major constituent of anti-depressant and anti-asthmatic herbal formulas such as SYJN, Banxia Houpu, Hange-kouboku-to, and Saiboku-to.
Korea
In Korean traditional medicine, perilla seed oil (deulgireum) was prized for skin conditions as early as the Goryeo period (918–1392 CE).
Broader Ethnomedicinal Use
It has been used as a natural herbal medicine to recover from different symptoms, such as depression-related disease, asthma, anxiety, tumors, coughs, allergies, intoxication, cold, fever, chills, headache, stuffy nose, and some intestinal disorders. The leaves, seeds, and stems of P. frutescens are used for various therapeutic applications in folk medicine.
Perilla has traditionally been prescribed to treat depression-related disease, anxiety, asthma, chest stuffiness, vomiting, coughs, colds, flus, phlegm, tumors, allergies, intoxication, fever, headache, stuffy nose, constipation, abdominal pain, and indigestion, and acts as an analgesic, anti-abortive agent, and a sedative.
Leaves, seeds, and oil are used in various regions of the world such as China, Japan, Korea, and India in the preparations of spices, condiments, sauces, tea, leafy vegetables, and herbal medicines.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
Until now, 271 natural molecules have been identified in perilla organs, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, essential oils, triterpenes, carotenoids, phytosterols, fatty acids, tocopherols, and policosanols.
Volatile Oils and Terpenoids
Based on the main chemical composition of the volatile oil in P. frutescens, plants are categorized into monoterpene (MT) and phenylpropylene (PP) types. The MT-type P. frutescens are further composed of seven sub-types, including perillaldehyde (PA), perilla ketone (PK), citral (a mixture of neral and geranial), perillen, piperitenone, shisofuran, and elsholtziaketone. The PP-type variants are characterized by varying combinations of myristin, dillapiol, elemicin, and nothoapiol. Key constituents among these include perillaldehyde, perilla ketone, limonene, shisofuran, farnesenes, and trans-shisool.
Phenolic Acids
Rosmarinic acid is the most extensively studied bioactive phenolic compound in perilla. Comprehensive phytochemical studies have identified key bioactive constituents of P. frutescens, including volatile oils (perillaldehyde, limonene), flavonoids (apigenin, luteolin), phenolic acids (rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid), and triterpenoids. P. frutescens is rich in diverse phenolic acids, including rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, and their derivatives. Additionally, the total flavonoid content in leaves is approximately five times greater than in stems.
Flavonoids
Key flavonoids, including luteolin 7-O-diglucuronide and apigenin 7-O-diglucuronide, along with rosmarinic acid, have been isolated from the leaves of P. frutescens var. acuta through chromatographic purification techniques. Anthocyanins, particularly those responsible for the deep purple coloration of red-leaf varieties, are also present and have been studied for their antioxidant properties.
Fatty Acids (Seed Oil)
The most abundant fatty acid in perilla seed oil is alpha-linolenic acid (56.94–58.02%), followed by linoleic acid (18.10–18.37%), oleic acid (12.86–13.38%), palmitic acid (7.06–7.52%), and stearic acid (3.28–3.55%). Perilla seed oil (PSO) possesses a high level of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), a favorable ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids, and other active ingredients such as tocopherols and phytosterols, which contribute to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular protective effects.
4. Mechanisms of Action
Anti-Inflammatory Pathways
P. frutescens extract (containing caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, luteolin, and apigenin) from the whole plant markedly inhibits key inflammatory transcriptional regulators, such as nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), thereby mitigating colitis symptoms in animal models. Additionally, it reduces the phosphorylation of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Tyr223 and Tyr174) in fMLF-activated human neutrophils while lowering intracellular Ca²⁺ levels.
In silico docking simulation demonstrated that luteolin 7-O-diglucuronide, apigenin 7-O-diglucuronide, and rosmarinic acid act as PPAR-α/δ/γ agonists; in vitro PPAR-α/δ/γ transcriptional assay showed that perilla water extract and rosmarinic acid increased PPAR-α luciferase activity. In the NF-κB luciferase assay, luteolin 7-O-diglucuronide suppressed NF-κB activity in a dose-dependent manner.
Perilla water extract and isolated compounds suppressed the LPS-induced upregulation of IL-6, Mcp1, and TNF-α in RAW 264.7 cells, potentially mediated through the PPAR/NF-κB signaling pathway.
Anti-Allergic Mechanisms
In animal models, perilla extract significantly reduced immune cell infiltration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, suppressed Th2-associated cytokine production, and decreased serum IgE levels, thereby alleviating airway inflammation. Mechanistically, perilla extract inhibited activation of NF-κB and p38 MAPK pathways, key drivers of allergic inflammation.
Lipid Metabolism
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is an essential polyunsaturated fatty acid and, besides being the precursor for the omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is also involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism, reducing blood viscosity, enhancing oxygen transport, and exerting antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Research suggests that perilla oil may positively influence lipid metabolism and regulate serum cholesterol levels by reducing the expression of β-hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase, an enzyme involved in cholesterol synthesis.
Neuroprotective and Monoaminergic Effects
Inhalation administration of Perilla frutescens essential oil has demonstrated antidepressant effects in preclinical models; the mechanism of action is speculated to involve monoamine neurotransmitters and the BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway.
Antifungal Mechanisms
In vitro antifungal assays showed that rosmarinic acid had a favorable inhibitory effect on fungi. Transcriptomic findings exhibited that differentially expressed genes of fungus after rosmarinic acid intervention were mainly enriched in the carbon metabolism pathway, while proteomic findings suggested that rosmarinic acid could inhibit the growth of Trichophyton mentagrophytes by interfering with the expression of enolase in the glycolysis pathway.
5. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
5.1 Allergic Rhinitis and Rhinoconjunctivitis
This area has the strongest available clinical evidence for perilla in humans. In a 21-day, randomized, double-blind, age-matched, placebo-controlled parallel group study, patients with mild seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis (SAR) were treated daily with extract of Perilla frutescens enriched for rosmarinic acid (200 mg [n=10] or 50 mg [n=9]) or placebo (n=10). Patients recorded symptoms daily in a diary. Profiles of infiltrating cells and concentrations of eotaxin, IL-1β, IL-8, and histamine were measured in nasal lavage fluid. Serum IgE concentrations and routine blood tests were also examined. As compared with placebo supplementation, supplementation with extract of Perilla frutescens enriched for rosmarinic acid resulted in a significant increase in responder rates for itchy nose, watery eyes, itchy eyes, and total symptoms (P<0.05).
Improvement in the symptoms of seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis was reported in this small study (N=30) evaluating perilla extract enriched with rosmarinic acid (200 mg or 50 mg). Although objective symptom scores were not affected, patient evaluation of symptoms showed improvement scores of 30%, 55.6%, and 70% for patients receiving placebo, P. frutescens plus rosmarinic acid 50 mg, and P. frutescens plus rosmarinic acid 200 mg, respectively. Numbers of inflammatory cells in nasal lavage fluid were significantly lower at 3 days in patients receiving P. frutescens plus rosmarinic acid.
Evidence strength: Few placebo-controlled clinical trials have examined the efficacy and safety of polyphenolic phytochemicals for treatment of allergic inflammatory diseases in humans. The one available randomized controlled trial in humans was small (N=29–30) and short in duration (21 days), limiting generalizable conclusions. Preclinical evidence is more robust.
5.2 Allergic Asthma
A study investigated the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of Perilla frutescens var. acuta extract (PFE), a plant rich in rosmarinic acid, using an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced mouse model of allergic asthma. Given rosmarinic acid's well-documented anti-allergic properties, extraction conditions were optimized to maximize RA yield. PFE treatment significantly reduced immune cell infiltration in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, suppressed Th2-associated cytokine production, and decreased serum IgE levels, thereby alleviating airway inflammation.
Another study investigated the effects of different fractions of Perilla frutescens leaves extracted by water or ethanol on asthma in BALB/c mice sensitized intraperitoneally and challenged with ovalbumin. Mice were tube-fed with water extracts (80 μg or 320 μg) or ethanol extracts (80 μg or 320 μg) of perilla leaves daily for 3 weeks. The results showed that OVA-specific IL-5 and IL-13 secretions from OVA-stimulated splenocytes were significantly suppressed in the ethanol extract groups. Serum levels of anti-OVA IgE tended to be lower in the higher-dose ethanol extract group.
Perilla decoction significantly suppressed passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) reaction in mice; the inhibition percentage at the dose of 500 mg/kg was 43%. Perilla frutescens is a medicinal herb prescribed in Saiboku-to, a Kampo formula effective for allergic diseases such as bronchial asthma.
Evidence strength: Predominantly animal/in vitro. No controlled human clinical trials specifically for asthma have been identified in the available literature. The obtained results confirmed efficacy in in vivo and clinical studies, but also emphasize the problem of phytochemical characterization of the species and differences between tested doses. More clinical trials with standardized protocols (defined active molecules, dosage, side effects) are required to obtain safe and effective herbal drugs.
5.3 Cardiovascular and Lipid Metabolism
Perilla seed oil (PSO), rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), has been traditionally used to relieve exterior syndrome and promote digestion, with modern studies confirming its anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-atherosclerotic properties. A study investigated the lipid-lowering effects of PSO and its underlying mechanisms in high-fat-diet-induced hyperlipidemic rats. Chemical standardization by UPLC-MS and GC-MS identified 591 compounds in PSO, with ALA accounting for 57.5% of its composition. PSO administration significantly improved the general condition of hyperlipidemic rats, reduced body weight, lowered serum total cholesterol and LDL-C levels, and alleviated liver tissue injury and lipid accumulation. Serum metabolomics analysis revealed that PSO upregulated ALA and eicosapentaenoic acid while downregulating pro-inflammatory metabolites, including arachidonic acid, prostaglandin H2, and prostaglandin E2.
Scientific evidence in an obesity model suggests that alpha-linolenic acid from perilla oil may reduce hepatic steatosis by modulating the cellular response to endoplasmic reticulum stress, specifically by promoting autophagy to remove excess lipids in the liver.
In another animal study, rats fed a high-fat/high-cholesterol diet supplemented with perilla oil for 16 weeks showed that perilla oil administration improved HFD-induced hyperlipidemia, reduced hepatic steatosis, and inhibited hepatic inflammatory infiltration and fibrosis. Perilla oil also increased fecal bile acid and cholesterol excretion.
Evidence strength: Cardiovascular and lipid evidence is largely derived from animal experiments. Future studies are warranted to elucidate the clinical potential for hyperlipidemia and metabolic cardiovascular diseases, and to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms of PSO as a nutritional approach in treating hyperlipidemia. Human clinical data specifically attributable to perilla seed oil supplementation for lipids are limited.
5.4 Gastrointestinal Protection
The extracts of Perilla frutescens leaves are effective in the protection of GI diseases, related to their phenolic and flavonoid compounds, including rosmarinic acid, apigenin, and luteolin. There is evidence that Perilla frutescens extract attenuates dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis through generating anti-inflammatory cytokines, suppressing proinflammatory cytokines, and inactivating both NF-κB and STAT3 pathways.
A rat-model study investigated the protective effect of ethanolic extract (EE) and aqueous fraction (AF) from Perilla frutescens leaves, rich in rosmarinic acid, on indomethacin-induced gastric ulcer. EE at doses of 50 and 500 mg/kg body weight and AF at doses of 50, 250, and 500 mg/kg body weight were administered for 14 days prior to ulcer induction.
Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal and cell culture) only. No human clinical trials for GI protection have been identified. The mechanistic basis is well characterized in animal models.
5.5 IgA Nephropathy and Renal Protection
A systematic review and meta-analysis examined the therapeutic effects of P. frutescens (PF) extracts on various models of immunoglobulin A (IgA) nephropathy using Medline, Embase, and Cochrane databases. All prospective interventional studies that evaluated the effect of PF extract versus placebo on rat models of chronic renal disorders were assessed. The search yielded 23 unique records, of which only five were included in the analysis. Results showed that administration of PF extracts led to a statistically significant reduction in proteinuria and PCNA levels in rats that received high doses of the extract.
Results from in vitro studies indicated that various components of Perilla frutescens extracts, and especially rosmarinic acid, have the potential to reduce vascular permeability and leukocyte migration, cytokine and chemokine secretion, specific antibody production, and nitric oxide production.
Evidence strength: Although these effects resulted from the analysis of in vitro and in vivo studies, there were few clinical trials that outlined significant therapeutic effects for human subjects. All included studies in the meta-analysis were rat models. No human trials exist for this indication.
5.6 Antioxidant Activity
The key bioactive compounds of P. frutescens contribute to diverse pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial, antiviral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, and neuroprotective effects. Caffeic and rosmarinic acids in perilla extract have been quantified at 0.51 mg/g dry weight and 2.29 mg/g dry weight, respectively. Antioxidant measurements demonstrated potent scavenging capacity against multiple radical assays. Perilla extracts showed good antioxidant properties in oil-in-water emulsions during storage, and at 320 ppm was as effective as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) at 20 ppm in slowing down the formation of hydroperoxides.
Evidence strength: Antioxidant activity is well-characterized in vitro. Translation of these findings to human clinical outcomes has not been established through controlled trials.
5.7 Oncology (Anticancer)
Several in vitro studies have outlined the antitumoral effects of Perilla frutescens extracts on breast cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and lung adenocarcinoma. Perilla ketone and isoegomaketone have shown promising antitumor activities in research contexts.
Evidence strength: All oncology evidence is in vitro. No human clinical trials exist. This evidence is preliminary and should not be interpreted as clinical efficacy.
5.8 Neuroprotective and Antidepressant Effects
In Japan and China, perilla is used as a major constituent of antidepressant and anti-asthmatic herbal formulas such as Saiboku-to and Hange-kouboku-to. Inhalation administration of Perilla frutescens essential oil has antidepressant effects in animal models, with the mechanism speculated to involve monoamine neurotransmitters and the BDNF/TrkB signaling pathway.
Evidence strength: Preclinical (animal/in vitro) and traditional evidence only. No standalone human clinical trials for depression or cognitive function specifically examining perilla have been identified.
5.9 Anti-Obesity and Metabolic Effects
A P. frutescens var. acuta water extract (PFW) and its isolated compounds were tested for anti-adipogenic and thermogenic activities in 3T3-L1 cells, the most commonly used cell line for adipocyte research. Recent studies have shown that perilla ketone and isoegomaketone have promising antitumor, antifungal, antirheumatoid arthritis, antiobesity, anti-inflammatory, and healing-promoting activities.
Evidence strength: Preclinical only (cell culture and animal models). Human clinical data are absent for these indications.
6. Body Systems and Health Areas
- Immune/Allergic System: Anti-allergic (IgE suppression, Th2 downregulation, mast cell stabilization); one human RCT in seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis.
- Respiratory System: Antiasthmatic activity in animal models; used in traditional Kampo medicine for asthma; no human-specific asthma RCTs.
- Gastrointestinal System: Gastric ulcer protection, anti-colitic effects via NF-κB and STAT3 suppression; anti-nausea and appetite-stimulating traditional use; evidence is animal/in vitro.
- Cardiovascular System: Lipid-lowering, anti-atherosclerotic, and anti-inflammatory effects attributable to the high ALA content of seed oil; evidence from animal models only for these specific endpoints.
- Hepatic System: Reduction in hepatic steatosis and lipid accumulation in rodent models of high-fat diet-induced liver disease.
- Renal System: Reduction in proteinuria and inflammation markers in rat models of IgA nephropathy; no human data.
- Nervous System: Preclinical antidepressant and neuroprotective activity via monoaminergic and BDNF/TrkB pathways; traditional use in formulas for depression and anxiety.
- Integumentary System: Anti-inflammatory and barrier-preserving effects on keratinocytes; used in cosmetics and dermatological preparations.
- Endocrine/Metabolic: Anti-adipogenic, thermogenic, and hypoglycemic activities in cell-culture and rodent models.
7. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies
The following dosages are as specifically reported in the cited literature and do not represent recommended clinical doses.
- In the human RCT for seasonal allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, patients received P. frutescens extract enriched for rosmarinic acid at 200 mg/day (n=10) or 50 mg/day (n=9) for 21 days.
- In the mouse asthma model, animals were tube-fed with 80 µg (low-dose) or 320 µg (high-dose) water or ethanol extracts of perilla leaves daily for 3 weeks.
- In the rat gastric ulcer model, ethanolic extract was given at doses of 50 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg body weight; aqueous fraction at 50, 250, and 500 mg/kg body weight, administered for 14 days prior to ulcer induction.
- In the mouse PCA (type I allergy) model, perilla decoction at 500 mg/kg resulted in a 43% inhibition of the anaphylactic reaction.
- In one dietary supplementation model, the dose of the perilla leaves supplement was equivalent to a human intake of 50 g/day in a 2,000 kcal-based diet.
Regarding commercial supplement forms: P. frutescens seed oil (with an omega-3 content exceeding 60%) is among the most widely used product forms in niche markets. Common preparations include standardized leaf extracts (standardized to rosmarinic acid content), cold-pressed seed oil, dried leaf tea, and encapsulated seed oil. The plant holds GRAS status in the United States for food use.
8. Safety Considerations
Perilla Ketone: Pulmonary Toxicity
Perilla ketone exhibits a dual pharmacological profile in research, demonstrating anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities alongside potent pulmonary toxicity. Based on a presumed average body weight of 63 kg, the estimated safe intake of P. frutescens leaves is ≤5 g/day to prevent perilla ketone-induced toxicity.
The toxicity of Perilla frutescens extracts was studied in animal models. The most toxic component is hypothesized to be perilla ketone, which induced pulmonary edema in laboratory animals. Mice and hamsters exhibited relatively low intraperitoneal median lethal dose values (5 mg/kg and 13.7 mg/kg, respectively), whereas dogs and pigs required significantly higher lethal doses (106 mg/kg and 158 mg/kg, respectively). The predominant manifestation of perilla ketone-associated pathology in dogs and pigs was observed in the liver, with minimal impact on the pulmonary tissue. Conversely, mice and hamsters exhibited solely pulmonary lesions in response to perilla ketone exposure.
Perilla ketone is documented to possess pulmonary toxicity in some animals (horses, sheep, and cows), but there is no evidence for the toxicity of perilla ketone in humans. The mechanism of action may be that perilla ketone increases pulmonary microvascular permeability and thus induces toxicity. To date, there has been insufficient evidence to determine whether perilla ketone can induce similar toxic effects in humans, which may be related to differences in species sensitivity.
Perillaldehyde Safety
While both perilla alcohol and perillaldehyde hold Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) designation, perillaldehyde continues to face persistent scrutiny in scientific debates over its potential health risks. Perillaldehyde has an LC50 of 7.975 mg/L in zebrafish, while sublethal exposure at 4 mg/L induces morphological abnormalities and neurotoxicity. Perillaldehyde demonstrates significant cytotoxicity in vitro and hepatotoxicity in vivo, necessitating precise dose regulation to mitigate these adverse effects.
Contact Allergy and Occupational Hazard
In Japan, occupational contact dermatitis is a well-known ailment among persons who come into contact with this plant. In Korea, anaphylaxis caused by Perilla frutescens seeds and occupational asthma produced by inhaling smoke from roasting these seeds, with an immunoglobulin E-mediated mechanism, have been documented.
Seed Oil Acute Toxicity
A study investigated the acute and sub-chronic 90-day oral toxicity of Perilla frutescens seed oil in rodent and dog models. In the acute oral toxicity study, the authors reported no significant treatment-associated toxicity or mortality.
Toxicological Data Gaps
Toxicological profiles of the active constituents of perilla, especially aromatic compounds (essential oils), are significantly lacking. The safety profile remains largely untested in certain populations, including young children and pregnant or nursing women.
General Clinical Evidence Assessment
The literature data are predominantly based on animal and cell culture studies, so the clinical evidence for the therapeutic effects is poorly outlined. The aim of authoritative reviews has been to provide an updated and thorough understanding of Perilla frutescens applications in clinical practice using data derived from human studies, and to outline the potential directions and perspectives for further studies. The overall body of clinical evidence for perilla as a therapeutic agent remains preliminary, with only one small randomized controlled human trial (for allergic rhinoconjunctivitis) meeting standard evidence thresholds. All other therapeutic indications are currently supported only by in vitro or animal data.
References
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