Maca (Lepidium meyenii)
1. Identity
Botanical and Chemical Names
Lepidium meyenii Walpers, known as maca or Peruvian ginseng, is an edible herbaceous biennial plant of the family Brassicaceae that is native to South America in the high Andes mountains of Peru and Bolivia. A second scientific name, Lepidium peruvianum Chacón, appears in a portion of the literature. Using Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry, researchers analyzed profiles of two isotypes deposited in medicinal plant herbaria in Australia and Poland, each identified under one of the two scientific names. The two isotypes correspond to holotypes deposited in the Herbarium of San Marcos University in Lima, Peru, dated back to 1843 and 1990 respectively. The results demonstrate distinct differences in taxonomy, visual appearance, phytochemical profiles, and DNA sequences, suggesting that the two specimens are dissimilar and that formal use of the term "synonymous" may be misleading.
The plant belongs to the brassica (mustard) family and the Lepidium genus. The most relevant plants related to Lepidium meyenii are rapeseed, mustard, turnip, black mustard, cabbage, garden cress, and watercress. Lepidium constitutes one of the largest genera in the Brassicaceae family.
Common names and synonyms in use include: maca-maca, maino, ayak chichira, ayak willku (Spanish and Quechua), and "Peruvian ginseng" (an informal trade name). Its Spanish and Quechua names include maca-maca, maino, ayak chichira, and ayak willku.
The Plant and Its Part Used
It is grown for its fleshy hypocotyl that is fused with a taproot, which is typically dried but may also be freshly cooked as a root vegetable. Maca is cultivated for more than 2,000 years and grows exclusively in the central Andes between 4,000 and 4,500 m altitude.
Common Forms and Preparations
As a cash crop, maca is primarily exported as a powder that may be raw or processed further as a gelatinized starch or as an extract. If dried, it may be processed into a flour for baking or as a dietary supplement. The plant is well known for its nutrient compositions, such as minerals, proteins, starches, amino acids, sugars, and fatty acids, and is commonly purchased in the form of capsules or powder worldwide as a nutritional supplement.
Although maca has been cultivated outside the Andes, it is unclear whether it develops the same active constituents or potency outside of its natural habitat. Hypocotyls grown from Peruvian seeds form with difficulty at low elevations, in greenhouses, or warm climates.
Color Phenotypes
Research over the last twenty years has identified up to seventeen different colors (phenotypes) of maca. The color, hypocotyl size, growing location, cultivation, and post-harvest processing methods can have a significant effect on the nutrition content, phytochemical profile, and clinical application. Yet, research differentiating the colors of maca and clinical applications remains limited. The spectrum of colors of the maca hypocotyl that has been identified ranges from white to gray (lead) to black, as well as more colorful varieties such as red, red-white, red-yellow, white-red, white-lilac, white-purple, yellow, yellow-red, yellow-purple, purple (violet), purple-white, purple-gray, light gray, and light-gray-yellow. Of these main phenotypes, black, red, and yellow have been most well studied for their clinical effects.
2. Traditional and Historical Use
Pre-Columbian and Incan Era
Maca is a Peruvian plant of the Brassicaceae family cultivated for more than 2,000 years, which grows exclusively in the central Andes between 4,000 and 4,500 m altitude. Maca's history begins in the high Andes of central Peru, where the root became part of local food, farming, and cultural life. It is often described today as a superfood, but its real history is older, more regional, and more interesting than that word suggests. Long before maca became known outside Peru, it was a high-Andean food crop shaped by altitude, cold, wind, Indigenous farming knowledge, trade, ritual, colonial tribute records, botanical research, and modern global demand. At the center of maca's story is the puna of central Peru, especially the highland zones of Junín and Pasco, around Lake Junín, also known historically as Chinchaycocha, and the Bombón Plateau.
Maca has been used for centuries in the Andes for nutrition and to enhance fertility in humans and animals. It has been traditionally used by indigenous Peruvians as a vital dietary supplement and an important staple food component in their diet.
Maca appears in colonial records as food, tribute, and barter. It was dried, stored, and associated with the harsh puna environment where many other crops did not grow well.
Spanish Colonial Period
The Food and Agriculture Organization recommended maca as a safe edible food in 1992. Prior to that recognition, the Spanish colonial encounter was pivotal in documenting maca's uses. Traditionally, the Andean people used maca as food or medication to treat respiratory conditions and rheumatic disease.
Traditional Preparations
In Andean communities, maca was prepared and consumed in several forms. It was traditionally boiled or roasted in its whole form, prepared into soups, porridges, and fermented beverages. Maca is part of the Brassicaceae family and grows at high altitudes in the Peruvian Andes mountain range (3,500–5,000 m). Historically, it has been used as a nutrient-dense food and for its medicinal properties, primarily in enhancing energy and fertility. Although no traditional descriptions have been found about the effect of maca on learning and memory, natives in the central Peruvian Andes ascribe to the use of maca in children an improvement in school performance. They do not exactly know which variety of maca has the better effect on memory and learning.
Maca is used as a food supplement and also for its medicinal properties described traditionally. Since the 1990s, an increasing interest in products from maca has been observed in many parts of the world. In the last decade, exportation of maca from Peru increased from 1,415,000 USD in 2001 to 6,170,000 USD in 2010.
3. Key Constituents and Active Compounds
Macronutrient Composition
The dried hypocotyls of L. meyenii predominantly contain hydrolysable carbohydrates (59.0%) followed by proteins (10.2%) and lipids (2.2%), showing similar composition of primary metabolites as carrots (Daucus carota). The average composition, on a dry matter basis, is 60–75% carbohydrates (primarily as polysaccharides).
Secondary Metabolites and Phytochemicals
Secondary metabolites in maca have been categorized into several groups: glucosinolates, macamides, macaenes, alkaloids, sterols, and fatty acids. Glucosinolates, macamides, macaenes, and alkaloids are considered the main bioactive components. A comprehensive 2019 review confirmed these as the core minor constituents, noting also starch, dietary fiber, and protein as major components, and minerals, non-starch polysaccharides, polyphenols (flavonolignans), macaenes, macamides, glucosinolates, and alkaloids as minor constituents.
Macamides
Maca contains several N-benzylamides referred to as macamides that are structurally related to anandamide. Macamides, functional compounds found only in Lepidium meyenii Walpers, have gained interest in many fields of research due to their multiple bioactivities. Macamides, the main bioactive compounds found in maca, are composed of fatty acids and benzylamine varying in hydrocarbon chain length and degree of unsaturation. Macamides, normally not present in fresh plants but introduced during traditional drying practices, are fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors that modulate release of neurotransmitters.
N-benzylamides have antioxidant activity thanks to their ability to donate electrons, and they can capture free radicals thanks to their donor hydrogen bonds through their hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions. The maintenance of a balanced redox state is critical for normal cellular homeostatic function within the neuroendocrine system.
Glucosinolates and Isothiocyanates
Maca contains glucotropaeolin, m-methoxyglucotropaeolin, benzyl glucosinolates, polyphenols, (1R,3S)-1-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-β-carboline-3-carboxylic acid (MTCA), and p-methoxybenzyl isothiocyanate. One of the predominant classes of glucosinolates in maca is the aromatic glucosinolates, notably benzyl glucosinolate (glucotropaeolin), accounting for a majority (up to 80%) of all glucosinolates.
It was assumed that glucosinolates, macamides, macaenes, and alkaloids are the main bioactive components of maca. Recently, a series of novel thiohydantoins which generally exhibit a variety of activities have been isolated from maca. This review focuses on the main bioactive components of maca and their biosynthetic pathway, indicating that macamides, thiohydantoins, and some alkaloids may originate from glucosinolates. Interestingly, thiohydantoins from maca are the first type of thiohydantoin derivatives found from a natural source and may contribute to some significant effects of maca.
Glucosinolates possess antitumor, antioxidant, and antifungal activity. They are considered the main source of anticancer activity of maca because, together with their metabolites, they exhibit chemoprotective characteristics by acting as inducers of phase 2 enzymes with possible antiproliferative and apoptotic effects.
Alkaloids
Imidazole alkaloids, β-carboline alkaloids, macaridines, and common amide alkaloids are the most characteristic alkaloids in maca. In total, 35 alkaloids were tentatively identified in maca extract. The secondary metabolites macaridine, macaene, macamides, and maca alkaloids are found only in this plant. In the 1960s, Dr. Gloria Chacón identified four alkaloids reportedly responsible for the fertility-enhancing effects of L. peruvianum.
Macaenes and Sterols
Macaenes are unsaturated fatty acids. Other compounds include sterols such as beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and stigmasterol. Different glucosinolates, including the aromatic glucosinolate glucotropaeolin, have been described within maca.
Phytochemical Variation by Color Phenotype
Compared to the black and red phenotypes, the yellow phenotype contained much lower glucosinolate levels measured against glucotropaeolin and m-methoxy-glucotropaeolin standards, and exhibited different genetic reaction profiles. The red maca phenotype showed the highest concentrations of glucosinolates as compared to the black and yellow maca. Maca's chemical composition varies due to ecotypes, growth conditions, and post-harvest processing, contributing to its intricate phytochemical profile.
Mechanisms of Action
In vitro, both methanolic and aqueous extracts of maca exhibit estrogenic activity. An isolated N-alkylamide from maca root has been shown to exert cannabimimetic actions. Research suggests that specific glucosinolates may be the chemical feature of L. peruvianum that provides acetylcholinesterase inhibition activity, implying that the phenotypes with these marker compounds may ultimately have a role in therapeutic approaches to memory loss.
Maca extracts were found to alleviate mood stress and promoted hippocampal neurogenesis, which was attributed to increased 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) transmission through the endocannabinoid system. Maca polysaccharides have demonstrated radical scavenging activity.
Scientific evidence has shown effects on sexual behavior, fertility, mood, memory, osteoporosis, metabolism, and the treatment of some tumor entities. However, the active principles behind each effect are still unknown.
4. Scientific Evidence by Area of Use
4.1 Sexual Function and Libido
The aims of this systematic review were to summarize and critically assess the evidence from randomized clinical trials (RCTs) for or against the effectiveness of maca in the improvement of sexual function, including sexual desire. Preparations from maca root have been reported to improve sexual function. The aim was to assess clinical evidence for or against the effectiveness of the maca plant as a treatment for sexual dysfunction. The researchers searched 17 databases from their inception to April 2010 and included all RCTs of any type of maca compared to a placebo for the treatment of healthy people or human patients with sexual dysfunction. The risk of bias for each study was assessed using Cochrane criteria.
Four RCTs met all the inclusion criteria. Two RCTs suggested a significant positive effect of maca on sexual dysfunction or sexual desire in healthy menopausal women or healthy adult men, respectively, while the other RCT failed to show any effects in healthy cyclists. A further RCT assessed the effects of maca in patients with erectile dysfunction using the International Index of Erectile Dysfunction-5 and showed significant effects.
The results of this systematic review provide limited evidence for the effectiveness of maca in improving sexual function. However, the total number of trials, the total sample size, and the average methodological quality of the primary studies were too limited to draw firm conclusions. More rigorous studies are warranted.
One specific clinical trial investigated maca in SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction. In one published 12-week double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized trial, healthy adult men ages 21–56 received either placebo or maca at doses of 1.5 g/day or 3.0 g/day. An improvement in sexual desire was observed with maca compared to placebo, and it did not separate by dose by 8 weeks of treatment, in the absence of changes in serum testosterone and estradiol. A small study (n=16; 14 women, 2 men) reported a dose-dependent effect, with high-dose maca (3,000 mg/day) significantly improving SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction in depressed patients, while low-dose maca (1,500 mg/day) did not.
Evidence strength: Preliminary and limited. The body of human RCT data is small, trials have methodological limitations, and results are mixed. No large, high-quality, independently replicated trials are yet available.
4.2 Male Fertility and Semen Quality
A 2016 systematic review searched 11 databases and assessed the evidence for maca in improving semen quality. Five studies — 3 randomized clinical trials (RCTs) and 2 uncontrolled observational studies (UOSs) — met all inclusion criteria. One RCT found favorable effects of maca on sperm mobility in infertile men. The two other RCTs showed positive effects of maca on several semen quality parameters in healthy men.
A subsequent 2022 systematic review and meta-analysis examined five RCTs, with maca administered in doses of 1–5 g orally. Three RCTs showed mixed efficacy of maca in improving semen quality parameters, including sperm concentration and sperm motility, in men experiencing infertility. The meta-analysis also failed to show the efficacy of maca in increasing sperm concentration compared to placebo (weighted mean difference 2.22, 95% CI −2.94 to 7.37, p = 0.4). Two other RCTs also showed mixed effects of maca on several semen quality parameters in healthy men. The evidence from the included studies suggests unclear effects of maca on semen quality parameters in both men experiencing infertility and healthy men.
Across all five studies in one meta-analysis, maca (1–5 g) was administered orally to the participants. The treatment duration ranged from twelve to sixteen weeks.
Evidence strength: Weak to inconclusive. Meta-analytic results do not support a statistically significant effect on sperm concentration. Some individual RCTs suggest benefit for sperm mobility, but results are inconsistent and study sizes are small.
4.3 Menopausal Symptoms
Clinical studies, primarily focused on sexual health, indicate improved sexual desire, erectile function, and subjective wellbeing in men. Maca also shows promise in alleviating menopausal symptoms in women and enhancing physical performance.
One double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study examined postmenopausal women. This study was aimed at assessing the use of hypocotyls of cruciferous Andean plant maca (Lepidium peruvianum Chacón), in alleviating symptoms of menopausal discomfort experienced by women in early post-menopause as measured by profiles of serum hormones (LH, FSH, E2, progesterone) and as assessed by Greene's Menopausal Index. The study was conducted on 20 Caucasian healthy early-postmenopausal women volunteers during three months (Trial I) and on eight women during nine months (Trial II). Hormone levels were determined in blood with simultaneous assessment of menopausal index at the start of study, after one month of placebo use, and after two and eight months of administration of 2 g gelatinized maca root powder (Maca-GO) in the form of two 500 mg hard gel capsules, twice daily.
Maca also acted as a toner of hormonal processes along the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Ovaries axis, significantly stimulating production of Estradiol (E2) without significant effect on progesterone. Simultaneously, researchers found suppression of blood FSH, LH, T3, cortisol, and ACTH levels, along with an increase in blood iron and bone density index. Additionally, alleviation of menopausal symptoms as per Kupperman Menopausal Index and Greene's Menopausal Score, as well as a decrease in Body Mass Index were observed.
In women, maca (3.5 g/day for 6 weeks) reportedly reduced psychological symptoms including depression and sexual dysfunction in a small clinical study (n=14).
Evidence strength: Preliminary. The available RCTs are small, short-term, and primarily pilot studies. Findings on hormonal modulation are of interest but require larger confirmatory trials.
4.4 Bone Health
Evidence for maca's effect on bone is primarily preclinical. Extracts of red and black maca have protective effects on bone architecture in ovariectomized rats without showing estrogenic effects on uterine weight. This finding may suggest the possibility to study the effect of maca extracts for the treatment of women with osteoporosis. In one study using ovariectomized rats, standardized hydroalcoholic extracts of black and red maca were each effective in promoting bone integrity to the same level as animals given estradiol (E2), but without increasing uterine weight, thereby demonstrating a lack of estrogenic activity. Since the polyphenol amounts of the extracts used in this study differed between the red (higher content) and black maca (lesser content), there might be other mechanisms facilitating these bone-protective effects. The authors proposed that maca may act through the hypothalamus–pituitary axis as one potential mechanism.
Evidence strength: Preclinical only. No robust human clinical trial data on bone outcomes is currently available.
4.5 Memory, Learning, and Neuroprotection
Experimental studies have shown that the black variety of maca has beneficial effects on learning and memory in experimental animal models. Black maca improved learning and memory in ovariectomized mice and in scopolamine-induced memory impairment in mice. Three varieties were studied (black, red, and yellow maca) and black maca was the only one showing significant biological effects.
Research suggests that specific glucosinolates may provide acetylcholinesterase inhibition activity, implying that phenotypes with these marker compounds may ultimately have a role in therapeutic approaches to memory loss. Preclinical investigations highlight the benefits attributed to maca compounds, including neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory properties, immunoregulation, and antioxidant effects.
Evidence strength: Preclinical only. Memory and cognitive effects have been demonstrated in animal models. Human clinical trial data on cognition is absent at this time.
4.6 Physical Performance and Energy
In a clinical trial, 44 elite athletes of different types (shooting, racket sports, swimming) took 2,500 mg of 100% concentrated black maca extract twice daily for eight weeks. Maca also shows promise in enhancing physical performance, based on the available evidence.
Experimental scientific evidence showed that maca has nutritional, energizer, and fertility-enhancer properties, and it acts on sexual dysfunctions, osteoporosis, benign prostatic hyperplasia, memory and learning, and protects skin against ultraviolet radiation.
Evidence strength: Very limited. Available human evidence on athletic performance consists of small trials. The claim of energy enhancement, while consistent with traditional use, has limited rigorous clinical support.
4.7 Mood and Depression
Evidence to date suggests that maca root could be an effective treatment for a range of conditions, with 55 out of 57 studies in one systematic review reporting an effect. Clinical trials with rigorous reporting and methods are warranted. However, regarding mood specifically, most evidence is preclinical or from small human pilots. Maca extracts were found to alleviate mood stress and promoted hippocampal neurogenesis, attributed to increased 5-HT and norepinephrine transmission through the endocannabinoid system.
Evidence strength: Preliminary and largely preclinical. Some small human trials have included mood measures, but there are no dedicated, large-scale RCTs of maca for mood or depressive disorders.
4.8 Prostate Health
The maca phenotype characterized by the color red has a selective therapeutic functionality affecting men after 50, with a capacity to prevent and reduce prostate hyperplasia. This effect has primarily been demonstrated in preclinical models. Maca is a plant with great potential as an adaptogen and appears to be promising as a nutraceutical in the prevention of several diseases. Scientific evidence has shown effects on sexual behavior, fertility, mood, memory, osteoporosis, metabolism, and the treatment of some tumor entities.
Evidence strength: Preclinical. Human clinical evidence specifically for benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is very limited and is not sufficient to draw clinical conclusions.
5. Body Systems Associated with Maca
- Reproductive system: Used for centuries in the Andes for nutrition and to enhance fertility in humans and animals.
- Endocrine system: Maca acted as a toner of hormonal processes along the Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Ovaries axis, significantly stimulating production of Estradiol (E2), with suppression of blood FSH, LH, T3, cortisol, and ACTH levels, along with an increase in blood iron and bone density index.
- Nervous system / neurological: Preclinical investigations highlight benefits including neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory properties, immunoregulation, and antioxidant effects.
- Musculoskeletal / bone: Extracts of red and black maca have protective effects on bone architecture in ovariectomized rats without showing estrogenic effects on uterine weight.
- Metabolic / cardiovascular: Maca's potential versatility extends to metabolic regulation, gastrointestinal health, cardioprotection, antihypertensive activity, photoprotection, muscle growth, hepatoprotection, proangiogenic effects, antithrombotic properties, and antiallergic activity — though these effects are largely documented preclinically.
6. Dosage Forms and Dosages Reported in Studies
Several dosage ranges appear across clinical trials and safety reviews. The following are reported in the primary literature and should not be construed as recommendations:
- Gonzales et al. did not observe any adverse effects in healthy volunteers who were administered 1.5 g/day or 3 g/day for 4 months.
- 3 g/day of maca was well tolerated in a small clinical study (n=16). In another small randomized placebo-controlled study, maca alone (0.6 g daily) or in combination with silymarin (maca plus silymarin, 0.2 g plus 0.6 g, respectively, daily) was administered for more than 90 days in patients suffering from metabolic syndrome.
- Across five RCTs examining semen quality, maca (1–5 g) was administered orally. Treatment duration ranged from twelve to sixteen weeks.
- 2 g of gelatinized maca root powder (Maca-GO) in the form of two 500 mg hard gel capsules, twice daily, was administered for two to eight months in a postmenopausal pilot study.
- Maca at 3.5 g/day for 6 weeks was used in a study of postmenopausal women (n=14).
- In one 12-week double-blind, placebo-controlled trial for sexual desire, healthy adult men ages 21–56 received either placebo or maca at doses of 1.5 g/day or 3.0 g/day.
- In a clinical trial in elite athletes, 2,500 mg of 100% concentrated black maca extract was administered twice daily for eight weeks.
- In a smaller study (n=16), 1,500 mg daily was not effective, but 3,000 mg daily was effective in SSRI-associated sexual dysfunction.
7. Safety, Adverse Effects, and Interactions
General Safety Profile
Maca is generally safe, with rare adverse effects, supported by preclinical studies revealing low toxicity and good human tolerance. Results in rats show that different types of maca (black, red, and yellow) have no acute toxicity at ≤17 g of dried hypocotyls/kg body weight. Rats treated chronically for 84 days with 1 g/kg body weight showed no side effects and a histological picture of liver similar to that observed in controls. As usual doses in rats are 1–2 g/kg body weight, it is suggested that maca is safe. Human consumption of ≤1 g/kg per day is considered safe, as well.
Reported Adverse Events in Humans
Safety reviews cited some unpublished clinical studies that reported only nonserious adverse events, specifically mild headache and flushing. In one clinical trial examining SSRI-induced sexual dysfunction, the maca treatment was well tolerated overall. Eleven of the 16 ITT patients reported at least one adverse effect during the study. These included GI upset (n=5), headache (n=2), irritability (n=2), panic attack (n=1), urinary frequency (n=1), blurry vision (n=1), sleep disruption (n=1), increased sweating (n=1), increased dreaming (n=1), thicker menstrual discharge (n=1), and fibromyalgia exacerbation (n=1). These events were consistently transient, and none led to subject discontinuation. In most cases, it was difficult to establish a direct relationship with maca administration.
Thyroid Considerations
Excess consumption of glucosinolates, coupled with low iodine levels, could precipitate goiter in those with thyroid disorders. This is a property shared by maca's broader Brassicaceae family, which includes cabbage, broccoli, and related vegetables.
Vitamin K and Anticoagulants
Maca has a high concentration of vitamin K, a common constituent in the Brassicaceae family; therefore, it is possible that the consumption of maca could adversely affect bleeding parameters in patients taking anticoagulant medication (e.g., warfarin).
Interactions with SSRIs and Antidepressants
Maca was studied in patients who developed sexual dysfunction following the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Thus, maca may interact with SSRIs such as escitalopram, citalopram, fluoxetine, or paroxetine. Though there have been no systematic human studies on the use of maca in antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction, the anecdotal evidence, as well as its relatively wide safety index, makes it a good candidate for controlled human studies. Given its benign side-effect profile, maca can potentially be used by elderly and cardiac-impaired populations taking oral nitrates who may not be eligible for sildenafil or other phosphodiesterase inhibitors.
Clinicians should monitor the adverse events associated with the concomitant use of adaptogens and antidepressant drugs in patients with mental disorders. Aggregation of side effects and pharmacokinetic interactions (inhibition of CYP and p-glycoprotein) between those medicines may result in clinically significant adverse events.
Pregnancy and Lactation
Avoidance of maca use during pregnancy and lactation is recommended due to lack of safety and efficacy data.
Geographic Sourcing and Quality Variability
Variability due to phenotype, geographic origin, and post-harvest processing represents a key gap in current research. Analytical standardization and holistic quality assessment are essential for improving quality control, authentication, and safety of maca-based functional foods and dietary supplements. Although maca has been cultivated outside the Andes, it is unclear whether it develops the same active constituents or potency outside of its natural habitat.
References
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- Maca (Lepidium meyenii) as a Functional Food and Dietary Supplement: A Review on Analytical Studies. PMC12840177.
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- Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walp.) on semen quality parameters: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Front Pharmacol. 2022. PMC9468664.
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- Dording CM, et al. A Double-Blind, Randomized, Pilot Dose-Finding Study of Maca Root (L. Meyenii) for the Management of SSRI-Induced Sexual Dysfunction. PMC6494062.
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- Effect of Three Different Cultivars of Lepidium meyenii (Maca) on Learning and Depression in Ovariectomized Mice. PMC1534053.
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- USP Dietary Supplement Compendium Safety Review: Maca. 2012.
- Chemical composition and health effects of maca (Lepidium meyenii). PubMed 30902313.
- Wikipedia. Lepidium meyenii.
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