Female Reproductive System

These ingredients are often used in alternative medicine to support female reproductive system.

• 8-prenylnaringeninScientific

  8-Prenylnaringenin (8-PN) from hops (Humulus lupulus) is among the most potent known phytoestrogens, with high affinity for estrogen receptor ERα. Multiple clinical trials of hop extracts standardized to 8-PN have shown modest reductions in menopausal hot flushes and vasomotor symptoms. An animal model also confirmed its ability to reverse ovariectomy-induced hot flush surrogates.

• ALA (alpha-lipoic acid)Scientific

  ALA has been studied in polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), where it improves insulin sensitivity and metabolic parameters. A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of RCTs evaluated ALA's effects on anthropometric, glycemic, lipid, oxidative stress, and hormonal parameters in PCOS women. A clinical study of ALA plus myo-inositol found 71% of PCOS women experienced improved menstrual cyclicity.

• alfalfaScientific

  Alfalfa's phytoestrogens (formononetin, biochanin A, coumestrol) directly interact with estrogen receptors in female reproductive tissues. This pharmacological mechanism underlies its use for menopausal and perimenopausal symptoms. Limited clinical evidence supports phytoestrogen effects on vasomotor symptoms.

• algal oilScientific

  Algal oil DHA is recommended for women throughout pregnancy and lactation to support fetal development and infant nutrition. DHA supplementation during pregnancy reduces the risk of very early preterm birth in low-dietary-DHA populations. During breastfeeding, algal oil increases breast milk DHA content and is considered safe and effective for this purpose.

• allspiceScientific

  P. dioica leaf extracts bind ERα and ERβ oestrogen receptors and modulate oestrogen-responsive gene expression in cell models, supporting its traditional use for menopausal symptoms and dysmenorrhea in Costa Rica and the Caribbean. A 2018 study confirmed oestrogenic and anti-oestrogenic effects of isolated allspice chromones.

• aniseScientific

  Anise is recognized as a phytoestrogenic agent in official monographs (ESCOP, EMA) and has clinical evidence for its effects on hot flashes and dysmenorrhea. Trans-anethole and estrols exert estrogenic activity documented in multiple in vitro, animal, and clinical studies. Traditional use across Unani, Iranian, and Western medicine for women's reproductive health is extensive.

• apple cider vinegarScientific

  Human and animal studies support ACV's relevance to the female reproductive system primarily through its effects on insulin sensitivity in PCOS. A small human study (n=7) found ACV restored ovulatory function in PCOS patients; animal models show improved ovarian histoarchitecture. A 2026 RCT (n=94) examined adjunctive ACV in PCOS patients on metformin.

• ashwagandhaScientific

  Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) is an Ayurvedic adaptogen studied for female reproductive health. A 2022 randomized, placebo-controlled trial found 300 mg twice daily for 8 weeks significantly improved female sexual health scores. A 2025 systematic review confirmed its potential to improve sexual function and address certain reproductive disorders via antioxidant mechanisms.

• asparagusScientific

  The female reproductive system is the most thoroughly clinically evidenced target system for asparagus (A. racemosus/shatavari). Multiple 2025 RCTs have demonstrated hormonal modulation, improvement of perimenopausal symptoms, vasomotor symptom reduction, menstrual health benefits, and FSH/LH/AMH modulation. Traditional Ayurvedic and Indian/British Pharmacopoeial recognition as a gynecological herb is extensive.

• astaxanthinScientific

  Human RCTs demonstrate astaxanthin benefits the female reproductive system in PCOS and endometriosis: it reduces ovarian oxidative stress and ER stress in granulosa cells, improves hormonal and metabolic parameters, and improves oocyte and embryo quality in ART settings. A 2025 systematic review of human trials confirmed benefits in women with PCOS and endometriosis.

• barberryScientific

  Barberry/berberine has clinical evidence for effects on the female reproductive system, primarily through PCOS management: reducing androgens, improving insulin resistance, normalizing LH/FSH ratios, and improving reproductive hormonal profiles across multiple RCTs.

• barrenwortScientific

  Epimedium icariin acts as a phytoestrogen binding ERα and promoting estrogen synthesis in granulosa cells. It modulates estrus cycles in animal models and has been studied for premature ovarian failure. Traditional TCM use includes menstrual irregularities and postmenopausal conditions. The 24-month bone RCT enrolled postmenopausal women and confirmed safe estrogenic activity in the female reproductive system.

• bee pollenScientific

  Bee pollen pollen extracts have been tested in multiple human trials for menopausal symptom relief, with consistent improvements in hot flushes, night sweats, mood, and quality of life. Phytoestrogenic and serotonin-modulating mechanisms have been proposed. Evidence is preliminary but includes several RCTs.

• berberineScientific

  Berberine has strong clinical evidence for improving reproductive outcomes in women with PCOS, including increased ovulation rates, improved endometrial thickness, and higher clinical pregnancy rates. It also reduces excess androgens, LH, and insulin resistance—key hormonal dysfunctions in female reproductive disorders.

• beta-caroteneScientific

  Beta-carotene is a normal and documented component of human breast milk, with maternal intake directly influencing milk carotenoid concentrations. Maternal vitamin A requirements increase during lactation, and beta-carotene from diet serves as the principal plant-source precursor for this increased need. Supplementation during pregnancy and lactation has been studied in clinical trials in nutrient-deficient populations.

• black cohoshScientific

  Black cohosh (Actaea/Cimicifuga racemosa) has long been used by Native Americans for menstrual irregularity and childbirth support. Multiple RCTs and meta-analyses have evaluated it for menopausal vasomotor symptoms; a 2010 meta-analysis of nine placebo-controlled RCTs found black cohosh preparations improved vasomotor symptoms by approximately 26% over placebo. Evidence is inconsistent and a 2012 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to fully support its use.

• bladderwrackScientific

  Bladderwrack modulated estrogen and progesterone levels in a published human case study, prolonged menstrual cycle length, and exhibited anti-estrogenic effects in pre-menopausal women. The mechanism involves reduced cholesterol substrate for estrogen biosynthesis and direct granulosa cell modulation.

• boronScientific

  Boron affects the female reproductive system through estrogen and calcium metabolism modulation (documented in postmenopausal women), reduction of menstrual pain (RCT evidence), and intravaginal boric acid use for vaginal infections (clinical evidence). It accumulates in reproductive tissues and influences sex-steroid enzyme pathways.

• bovine liverScientific

  Bovine liver provides folate (neural tube defect prevention), B12, heme iron (prevents ovulatory dysfunction and maternal anemia), zinc (folliculogenesis), vitamin A (follicular development), and choline (embryonic brain development). These address the primary nutritional demands across the female reproductive cycle from preconception through lactation.

• caroteneScientific

  Beta-carotene as provitamin A supports female reproductive function through vitamin A's essential roles in cell differentiation, embryogenesis, and fetal organogenesis. Vitamin A from beta-carotene is required for normal ovarian function and is essential during the periconceptional period. Beta-carotene is preferred over preformed vitamin A in women of reproductive age due to its self-limiting conversion and absence of teratogenic risk.

• caryophylleneScientific

  BCP suppressed endometrial implant growth by over 52% in a rat endometriosis model via anti-inflammatory and pro-apoptotic mechanisms, without affecting fertility or reproductive function.

• cauliflowerScientific

  I3C and DIM from cauliflower modulate estrogen metabolism and exert anti-proliferative effects in cervical and breast epithelium. Clinical trial data supports I3C efficacy against cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Folate in cauliflower is essential for fetal neural tube development, directly relevant to reproductive outcomes.

• chamomileScientific

  A 2021 PMC-published systematic review of multiple RCTs concluded that chamomile is an effective treatment for primary dysmenorrhea, reducing both menstrual pain and bleeding volume. A 2022 RCT (n=200) directly compared chamomile sachet to mefenamic acid for primary dysmenorrhea and found comparable outcomes. Chamomile inhibits prostaglandin and leukotriene production in the endometrium, the primary driver of menstrual pain.

• chaste treeScientific

  Vitex agnus-castus (chasteberry) is well-documented for female reproductive conditions including PMS, premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), and hyperprolactinaemia. A systematic review of 12 RCTs found 7 of 8 PMS trials showed Vitex superior to placebo. It reduces prolactin via dopaminergic activity, normalizes luteal phase length, and raises mid-luteal progesterone.

• chinese salvia rootScientific

  The female reproductive system is one of the most consistently documented domains for Danshen in both classical TCM and modern clinical practice. It is the single most common diagnosis category for Danshen prescriptions in Taiwan's national health insurance data, covering irregular menstruation, menstrual pain, uterine bleeding, and endometriosis.

• cholineScientific

  Estrogen upregulates the PEMT enzyme responsible for endogenous choline synthesis, meaning premenopausal women have lower dietary choline requirements than postmenopausal women. When estrogen falls at menopause, susceptibility to choline deficiency and associated organ dysfunction rises sharply. Choline requirements during pregnancy and the full female reproductive lifespan are strongly modulated by estrogen status.

• chromiumScientific

  Chromium has been specifically studied in women with PCOS, the most common endocrine-reproductive disorder in women of reproductive age, with clinical trials examining effects on menstrual regularity, ovulation, androgen levels, and fertility. A 2025 meta-analysis of 10 RCTs (683 women) found benefits for insulin sensitivity and metabolic parameters in PCOS. Evidence for direct improvement in ovulation rates is limited; one RCT found chromium comparable to metformin for insulin sensitivity but not for reducing androgens or improving ovulation.

• cinnamonScientific

  Cinnamon is studied in PCOS, the most common female endocrine-reproductive disorder. RCTs and systematic reviews show improvements in menstrual cyclicity, ovarian volume, insulin resistance, and metabolic parameters in PCOS. One RCT also found cinnamon capsules superior to clotrimazole for candidal vaginitis.

• CoQ10 (coenzyme Q10)Scientific

  CoQ10 improves oocyte quality, ovarian reserve, and ART (assisted reproductive technology) outcomes by restoring mitochondrial function in aging oocytes. Clinical studies demonstrate CoQ10 enhances ovarian function and embryo quality, particularly in women with diminished ovarian reserve or advanced maternal age. A 2025 PMC review synthesizes evidence for its role in oocyte maturation, embryonic development, and ovarian aging.

• d-alpha tocopherolScientific

  D-alpha tocopherol is recognized as essential for reproductive health by the NIH, and human studies document its role in endometrial receptivity, uterine blood flow, and implantation support. Pilot clinical data show improved endometrial thickness and pregnancy rates in women with thin endometrium when treated with vitamin E.

• daidzeinScientific

  Daidzein is a soy isoflavone with estrogen receptor binding activity. It is metabolized by intestinal bacteria to equol (in equol producers), a more potent phytoestrogen. Clinical evidence supports its role in reducing menopausal vasomotor symptoms, and it is also studied for menstrual cycle support. Multiple RCTs of soy isoflavone products containing daidzein show efficacy for hot flushes.

• daidzinScientific

  Daidzein (daidzin's active metabolite) influences female reproductive processes including ovarian cycle, folliculogenesis, oogenesis, and ovarian cell function via phytoestrogenic ERβ agonism. Clinical evidence for menopausal symptom relief exists, though effects on reproduction are mostly from animal and in vitro studies.

• DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)Scientific

  DHA and EPA are associated with improved fertility outcomes in women, including higher pregnancy rates in both assisted reproductive technology (ART) and natural conception, and better oocyte and embryo quality. Omega-3 intake during pregnancy supports fetal neurological development and is associated with reduced pregnancy loss. A meta-analysis found significantly higher odds of pregnancy and fertilization with omega-3 supplementation.

• DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone)Scientific

  DHEA is the primary precursor for estrogen and androgen synthesis in postmenopausal women and plays a central role in female reproductive endocrinology throughout the lifespan. Intravaginal DHEA is FDA-approved for menopausal dyspareunia. DHEA supplementation improves ovarian reserve markers and fertility outcomes in women with diminished ovarian reserve.

• DIM (diindolylmethane)Scientific

  Diindolylmethane (DIM) is the principal stomach-derived metabolite of Indole-3-Carbinol from cruciferous vegetables. It modulates estrogen metabolism favoring 2-hydroxylation over 16α-hydroxylation, relevant to estrogen-dependent female conditions including endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and cervical health. Clinical evidence supports effects on urinary estrogen metabolite ratios and hormone-sensitive conditions.

• docosahexaenoic acidScientific

  DHA is a critical nutrient for the female reproductive system, supporting fetal development via placental transfer during pregnancy, enriching breast milk during lactation, and potentially modulating uterine inflammatory responses. Adequate DHA during pregnancy and lactation is associated with improved infant neurodevelopmental and visual outcomes.

• dodderScientific

  Dodder (Cuscuta chinensis) is the most commonly prescribed herb for female infertility in TCM clinical practice. Pharmacological data confirm estrogen-like activity, increased LH receptor binding in ovarian tissue, and anti-abortion effects via MAPK and estrogen/progesterone receptor modulation. Clinical studies of TCM formulas containing dodder show benefits for menstrual disorders, recurrent miscarriage, and ovarian reserve.

• EGCG (epigallocatechin gallate)Scientific

  EGCG supports female reproductive health by improving oocyte maturation and developmental capacity, reducing oxidative stress in reproductive tissues, modulating ovarian function, and demonstrating inhibitory effects on gynecological cancers. It has also been studied in preeclampsia and bladder overactivity associated with ovarian hormone deficiency.

• eicosapentaenoic acidScientific

  EPA modulates prostaglandin synthesis in the female reproductive system, reducing dysmenorrhea and PMS symptoms. During pregnancy, EPA contributes anti-inflammatory and lipid-regulatory benefits. EPA's role is primarily anti-inflammatory through prostaglandin pathway competition with arachidonic acid.

• EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)Scientific

  EPA-containing omega-3 supplementation has demonstrated clinical benefit for multiple female reproductive outcomes, including reduced androgen levels in PCOS, more regular menstrual cycles, and improved clinical pregnancy rates in women with PCOS undergoing ovulation induction. Maternal EPA status during pregnancy also influences fetal development.

• estrogenScientific

  Estrogen is the primary female sex hormone governing the menstrual cycle, female secondary sexual characteristics, bone density, and menopausal symptom management. FDA-approved estrogen therapy is the gold standard for menopausal vasomotor symptoms and vaginal atrophy. It is also the basis of hormonal contraception and HRT.

• fennelScientific

  The female reproductive system is the most extensively studied target for fennel's clinical effects. RCTs document efficacy for dysmenorrhea, PMS, and menopausal symptoms. Animal data demonstrate estrogenic effects on uterus, ovaries, and reproductive organs.

• fenugreekScientific

  Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) is used in Ayurvedic and traditional medicine as a galactagogue and for female hormonal support. Its steroidal saponins (including diosgenin) bind estrogen receptors. Clinical evidence supports its use for lactation support; preliminary evidence exists for menstrual cycle regulation and menopausal symptoms. It is also evaluated in PCOS management.

• ferula assafoetidaScientific

  Asafoetida is a documented emmenagogue and reproductive tonic in Ayurvedic, Unani, Persian, and Malaysian medicine. A human RCT compared 1 g/day asafoetida versus oral contraceptive in PCOS patients measuring menstrual regularity, testosterone, and ovarian morphology.

• fisetinScientific

  Fisetin modulates ovarian aging, PCOS, endometriosis, uterine fibroids, and menopause pathways through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and senolytic mechanisms. A 2026 Johns Hopkins systematic review covers all reproductive contexts comprehensively.

• fish oilScientific

  Fish oil EPA and DHA influence female reproductive function through effects on uterine blood flow, endometrial receptivity, hormonal regulation, ovarian follicular development, and prostaglandin profiles governing uterine contractility. Clinical evidence supports fish oil use for improved fertility, PCOS management, dysmenorrhea, and pregnancy outcomes.

• flaxseedScientific

  Flaxseed is the richest dietary source of lignans (secoisolariciresinol diglucoside) and also contains phytoestrogens and omega-3 ALA. Clinical studies show supplementation can improve hormonal parameters, reduce androgen levels, and support menstrual cycle regularity in PCOS. Lignans modulate estrogen metabolism via aromatase inhibition and estrogen receptor binding.

• folic acidScientific

  Folic acid (vitamin B9) is scientifically established for female reproductive health, primarily as a periconceptional supplement to prevent neural tube defects. Evidence also supports its role in PCOS management, reducing BMI and homocysteine, and improving fertility outcomes when combined with myo-inositol. WHO and NIH formally recommend it for preconception use.

• folinic acidScientific

  Folate, including folinic acid, is essential for the female reproductive system through its role in oocyte quality, embryogenesis, and neural tube closure in early fetal development. The one-carbon cycle supported by folinic acid regulates epigenetic programming of the embryo. Folate deficiency is associated with subfertility, early pregnancy loss, and NTD-affected pregnancies.

• formononetinScientific

  Formononetin is a phytoestrogenic isoflavone found in red clover and astragalus with preferential ERβ activity. It is metabolized to daidzein and further to equol, contributing to red clover's clinically studied menopausal and reproductive effects. Evidence from red clover RCTs encompassing formononetin shows improvements in menopausal symptoms, vaginal cytology, and bone markers.

• gamma oryzanolScientific

  Gamma oryzanol exerts effects on the female reproductive system primarily through pituitary LH suppression and hypothalamic endorphin stimulation, reducing vasomotor symptoms of menopause and perimenopause. Clinical trials in menopausal and surgically oophorectomized women demonstrate 67–85% symptom response rates.

• genisteinScientific

  Genistein is the principal soy isoflavone and a potent phytoestrogen with preferential ERβ binding. Multiple RCTs support its use for menopausal vasomotor symptoms and bone protection. A meta-analysis of soy isoflavone trials (in which genistein is the primary active component) shows ~26% improvement in vasomotor symptoms over placebo.

• geraniumScientific

  Geranium is classified as phytoestrogenic and adrenal-stimulating, with documented effects on salivary estrogen levels in women. Clinical evidence supports its use in PMS, menopause, and menstrual disorders. It is one of the most widely used botanicals in women's hormonal health aromatherapy.

• gingerScientific

  Ginger (Zingiber officinale) has traditional and scientific support for female reproductive use, primarily for dysmenorrhea and pregnancy-related nausea. Multiple RCTs show ginger powder (500 mg–2 g/day) significantly reduces menstrual pain comparable to ibuprofen. It also has anti-prostaglandin effects relevant to uterine cramping.

• ginsengScientific

  Panax ginseng has been studied for menopausal quality-of-life improvement and female sexual function. An RCT found Korean red ginseng significantly improved FSH levels, menopause-specific quality of life, and sexual function in postmenopausal women. Ginsenosides modulate estrogen receptor activity and are phytoestrogenic at low concentrations.

• ginsenosidesScientific

  Ginsenosides are the primary bioactive triterpene saponins of Panax ginseng, demonstrating phytoestrogenic ERα/ERβ binding at low concentrations. Clinical studies using ginsenoside-standardized ginseng extracts show improvements in menopausal quality of life, FSH levels, and sexual function in postmenopausal women.

• GLA (gamma linolenic acid)Scientific

  GLA (via evening primrose oil) has clinical evidence for supporting female reproductive health through reduction of menstrual cramps, PMS symptoms, menopausal hot flashes, and mastalgia. Multiple controlled trials document these effects, with the mechanism involving PGE1 modulation of uterine smooth muscle and hormonal symptom pathways.

• glycitinScientific

  Glycitin is a phytoestrogen that directly influences the female reproductive system through ERα and ERβ modulation. In postmenopausal women, soy isoflavone preparations containing glycitin alleviate vasomotor symptoms and are investigated for effects on uterine health, bone, and hormonal balance. Estrogenic effects on the female reproductive system are among the primary documented health functions of glycitin.

• HMR (7-hydroxymatairesinol)Scientific

  HMR has been shown to inhibit ENNG-induced uterine endometrial carcinogenesis in rats, significantly reducing endometrial adenocarcinoma incidence. It also modulates estrogen metabolism in pre- and post-menopausal women, shifting the 2-OHE to 16α-OHE ratio favorably. Its phytoestrogenic activity affects reproductive organ responses in animal models.

• HMR lignanScientific

  HMRlignan's primary studied application involves the female reproductive endocrine axis: its metabolite enterolactone modulates ERα and ERβ, reduces hot flash frequency in postmenopausal women, inhibits aromatase, and has been studied in uterine carcinogenesis animal models. The one published human RCT specifically enrolled postmenopausal women and showed significant hot flash reduction and robust enterolactone bioconversion.

• hopsScientific

  8-Prenylnaringenin (8-PN) from hops is the most potent phytoestrogen known, binding estrogen receptor-alpha with high affinity and producing estrogenic effects on the female reproductive system. Clinical RCTs confirm vasomotor symptom relief in menopause. Safety concerns include potential uterotrophic effects with prolonged use.

• hydroxymatairesinolScientific

  HMR is converted by gut microbiota to enterolactone, a weak phytoestrogen that modulates ER-α and ER-β signaling in estrogen-sensitive tissues. A clinical study in postmenopausal women demonstrated that HMRlignan supplementation (36–72 mg/day for 8 weeks) raised plasma enterolactone and significantly reduced hot-flash frequency. ENL may also inhibit aromatase, modestly reducing local estrogen biosynthesis relevant to the female reproductive system.

• icariinScientific

  Icariin is the principal flavonoid of Epimedium species (horny goat weed) with demonstrated ERβ phytoestrogenic activity and PDE-5 inhibition. A 24-month RCT found icariin 60 mg/day significantly attenuated postmenopausal bone loss. Preclinical studies confirm estrogenic and anti-osteoporotic effects relevant to female reproductive aging.

• indole-3-carbinolScientific

  Indole-3-Carbinol (I3C) is a glucosinolate breakdown product from cruciferous vegetables that modulates estrogen metabolism by shifting 16α-hydroxylation toward the less potent 2-hydroxylation pathway. This affects estrogen-dependent conditions including endometriosis, uterine fibroids, cervical dysplasia (HPV-related), and estrogen-receptor-positive cancers. Clinical trials support it for cervical dysplasia.

• inositolScientific

  Inositol (particularly myo-inositol) has robust clinical evidence for female reproductive support in PCOS, improving insulin sensitivity, ovulation, menstrual regularity, and oocyte quality. Multiple RCTs show it restores spontaneous ovulation in PCOS women. A 2024 umbrella review of meta-analyses confirmed its benefits for PCOS-related reproductive dysfunction.

• iodineScientific

  Iodine accumulates in ovarian tissue, breast tissue, uterus, and cervix; it is not restricted to the thyroid in females. Thyroid hormones regulated by iodine control menstrual regularity, ovulation, and fertility. Iodine deficiency is associated with menstrual irregularities, impaired ovulation, and increased risk of miscarriage. Adequate iodine is also required during pregnancy for fetal thyroid development and placental function.

• ironScientific

  Iron plays a unique and well-characterized physiological role in the female reproductive system. Menstruation is a primary cause of iron loss in women, making iron deficiency the leading nutritional deficiency among women of reproductive age. Iron is required for normal ovarian hormone synthesis, menstrual cycle regulation, endometrial function, and fertility. Iron requirements increase substantially during pregnancy, and dysregulation of iron—either deficiency or overload—is documented in numerous gynecological conditions.

• isoflavonesScientific

  Isoflavones are phytoestrogens found in soy, red clover, and other legumes that bind estrogen receptors ERα and ERβ. Multiple systematic reviews and RCTs support their efficacy for menopausal vasomotor symptoms, bone mineral density, and vaginal health. EFSA (2015) confirmed long-term safety at up to 150 mg/day for hormone-sensitive tissues.

• kaleScientific

  Kale's I3C and DIM modulate hepatic estrogen metabolism, shifting it toward less proliferative 2-OHE1 metabolites. Epidemiological studies link high cruciferous vegetable intake to reduced risk of hormone-related gynecological cancers. Folate in kale is essential for fetal neural tube development in early pregnancy.

• kavaScientific

  Kava has been studied in controlled clinical trials in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women, demonstrating significant reductions in anxiety, mood disturbance, and neurovegetative complaints associated with the reproductive hormonal transition. Clinical herbalist literature also documents traditional use for menstrual cramps and pelvic pain via antispasmodic mechanisms.

• krill oilScientific

  A double-blind RCT (Sampalis et al., 2003; n=70 women) demonstrated Neptune Krill Oil (2 g/day, 3 months) significantly reduced PMS symptoms and dysmenorrhea pain and decreased analgesic use, outperforming fish oil. EPA-derived prostaglandins and resolvins reduce uterine prostaglandin-mediated inflammation underlying both conditions.

• kudzuScientific

  Kudzu root isoflavones exert phytoestrogenic effects via ERβ with documented clinical relevance to menopause, vaginal health, and menopausal symptom management. Multiple clinical studies, including an RCT, confirm meaningful effects on vasomotor symptoms and vaginal tissue. Estrogenic activity on the female reproductive system is one of kudzu's best-documented human endpoints.

• labisia pumilaScientific

  Labisia pumila (Kacip Fatimah) is a Malaysian traditional herb used for postpartum care, menstrual regulation, and female reproductive support. Preclinical and limited clinical studies show phytoestrogenic activity and effects on uterine health. It is registered as a traditional medicine in Malaysia and has been studied in clinical trials for postpartum uterine involution and menopausal symptoms.

• lactobacillus acidophilusScientific

  Lactobacillus acidophilus is a dominant species in healthy vaginal microbiome, producing lactic acid to maintain low vaginal pH and protect against pathogenic organisms (BV, candidiasis). Clinical trials of oral and vaginal L. acidophilus supplementation show benefits for bacterial vaginosis treatment and prevention and for maintaining vaginal health.

• lactobacillus crispatusScientific

  Lactobacillus crispatus is the predominant species in the optimal healthy vaginal microbiome Community State Type I, providing robust protection against BV and STIs through high hydrogen peroxide and lactic acid production. Clinical studies show vaginal L. crispatus supplementation significantly reduces BV recurrence and cervical cancer risk.

• lactobacillus fermentumScientific

  Lactobacillus fermentum is found in the healthy vaginal microbiome and has been studied for BV prevention and vaginal health restoration. Clinical and preclinical evidence supports its role in producing lactic acid and bacteriocins that protect vaginal epithelium. Included in multi-strain probiotic formulations for female reproductive health.

• lactobacillus gasseriScientific

  Lactobacillus gasseri is a vaginal Lactobacillus species associated with healthy vaginal microbiome and studied for BV prevention and endometriosis. An RCT found L. gasseri OLL2809 significantly reduced menstrual pain in women with endometriosis. It also colonizes the vaginal tract and contributes to protective lactic acid production.

• lactobacillus jenseniiScientific

  Lactobacillus jensenii is a normal vaginal Lactobacillus species that produces both D- and L-lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide, contributing to vaginal protective microbiome. Its presence in healthy vaginal microbiome Community State Types is associated with reduced BV and STI risk. Included in probiotic formulations for vaginal health.

• lactobacillus reuteriScientific

  Lactobacillus reuteri has been clinically studied for female reproductive health, including BV treatment (combined with L. rhamnosus) in multiple RCTs, showing improved cure rates and reduced recurrence. The strain RC-14 specifically colonizes the vaginal tract after oral administration and has demonstrated efficacy for BV in controlled clinical trials.

• lactobacillus rhamnosusScientific

  Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1, combined with L. reuteri RC-14, has demonstrated efficacy in multiple RCTs for BV treatment and prevention, normalizing vaginal microbiome and reducing Nugent scores. It colonizes the vaginal tract after oral ingestion and is one of the most rigorously studied probiotics for female reproductive health.

• lactobacillus salivariusScientific

  Lactobacillus salivarius has been found in both vaginal and oral microbiomes and studied for female reproductive health including mastitis prevention and vaginal health. Specific strains (CECT5713) demonstrated efficacy in RCTs for reducing mastitis incidence in breastfeeding women, and vaginal strains contribute to protective microbiome maintenance.

• lactoferrinScientific

  Lactoferrin is extensively studied in pregnancy for treatment of iron-deficiency anemia and inflammation, with meta-analysis evidence from 4 RCTs (600 women) favoring it over ferrous sulfate. It also has documented antimicrobial and microbiota-modulating roles in the female genital tract, and vaginal administration has been shown to reduce amniotic fluid oxidative stress.

• lavenderScientific

  Multiple RCTs confirm lavender aromatherapy significantly reduces primary dysmenorrhea pain, nausea, and associated symptoms. Lavender in vitro studies demonstrate antifungal activity against vaginal Candida albicans. Aromatherapy massage with lavender is also documented to reduce menopausal symptoms including hot flushes, depression, and pain in climacteric women.

• lemon balmScientific

  Lemon balm has clinical evidence for effects on the female reproductive system: RCTs demonstrate reduction of primary dysmenorrhoea severity, improvement of premenstrual symptoms, and improvement of sexual dysfunction (desire, arousal, lubrication, orgasm). Traditional use for menstrual irregularities is also documented in the NIH LactMed database and multiple pharmacopoeias.

• licorice rootScientific

  Licorice root's phytoestrogenic compounds directly interact with estrogen receptors in female reproductive tissues. Clinical evidence supports efficacy for menopausal hot flashes (double-blind RCT) and PMS/dysmenorrhea (clinical trial evidence in combination formulas). Authoritative reviews list female reproductive indications as primary uses for glycyrrhizin-containing licorice.

• lignansScientific

  Lignans as phytoestrogens influence female reproductive health through modulation of estrogen receptor signaling, SHBG levels, and enterohepatic estrogen circulation. Human studies demonstrate effects on menstrual cycle length, menopausal symptom severity, and estrogen metabolite profiles. Lignans may help prevent estrogen-dependent gynecological cancers and support hormonal balance across reproductive life stages.

• ligustilidesScientific

  Ligustilides (particularly Z-ligustilide) are phthalide compounds found in Ligusticum chuanxiong and Angelica sinensis, identified as key bioactive components mediating uterine antispasmodic, vasodilatory, and anti-inflammatory effects. Preclinical studies confirm calcium channel antagonism in uterine smooth muscle. They are principal compounds in TCM formulas for dysmenorrhea.

• macaScientific

  Maca (Lepidium meyenii) is a Peruvian root with traditional use for fertility, hormone balance, and sexual function. Several clinical trials show improvements in menopausal symptoms, sexual function, and hormonal profiles (FSH/LH). It works through HPA axis modulation rather than direct phytoestrogenic activity, supporting ovarian and pituitary function.

• magnesiumScientific

  Magnesium has multiple clinically documented roles in female reproductive health. It is a standard-of-care treatment for eclampsia (seizures in pre-eclampsia) via IV magnesium sulfate. Serum magnesium is significantly lower in women with pre-eclampsia versus normotensive pregnant women. Magnesium supplementation has also been studied for premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and dysmenorrhea, with RCTs showing reductions in PMS symptoms and menstrual pain.

• magnoliaScientific

  Magnolia bark extract has been clinically studied in multiple RCTs in menopausal and postmenopausal women, showing improvements in insomnia, anxiety, mood, irritability, and libido attributable to the magnolia component. Traditional use includes menstrual disorders. Preliminary evidence suggests modulation of sex hormone balance.

• maitake mushroomScientific

  Maitake SX-fraction demonstrated the ability to induce ovulation in PCOS patients in a published clinical trial, working via insulin sensitization to correct the hyperinsulinemia-driven androgen excess underlying anovulation. This is the only medicinal mushroom with published clinical ovulation-induction data in women.

• manganeseScientific

  The NIH ODS and peer-reviewed literature confirm manganese's role in reproduction via its metalloenzyme functions. Population studies link manganese to menstrual cycle symptoms, and it is included in reviews of minerals essential to female reproductive health.

• marjoramScientific

  Marjoram has the strongest direct clinical evidence among herbal remedies for PCOS, with a double-blind RCT demonstrating hormonal improvements. Traditional use as an emmenagogue, menstrual regulator, and antispasmodic for menstrual pain is extensively documented.

• mugwortScientific

  A. vulgaris has been used for gynecological conditions for centuries and is listed in the European and French Pharmacopoeias for irregular cycles and menopausal symptoms. Moxibustion RCTs demonstrate statistically significant efficacy for correcting breech presentation. Estrogenic and uterotonic pharmacological activities are confirmed in preclinical studies.

• muira puamaScientific

  A clinical study in 202 women using a muira puama-ginkgo combination (Herbal vX) demonstrated significant improvement in multiple sexual function and libido parameters. Traditional use also encompasses menstrual disorders. The clinical evidence is limited to a single non-placebo-controlled study and combination-product design.

• NAC (N-acetyl cysteine)Scientific

  NAC has robust clinical evidence in the female reproductive system, particularly for PCOS-related infertility. A systematic review and meta-analysis of 8 RCTs (n=910 women with PCOS) found that NAC significantly improved pregnancy and ovulation rates compared to placebo. A 2025 meta-analysis of 22 studies (n=2515) confirmed improvements in follicular growth, endometrial thickness, and hormone levels.

• nut grassScientific

  C. rotundus is arguably the most pharmacologically investigated herb for the female reproductive system in Ayurveda and TCM. It demonstrates antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory, and hormonal modulating effects on the uterus and ovaries, with clinical validation for dysmenorrhea and mechanistic data for fertility and uterine bleeding.

• omega-3 fatty acidsScientific

  Omega-3 fatty acids modulate prostaglandin synthesis and steroidogenesis relevant to ovulation, menstrual regularity, and oocyte quality. Clinical studies show benefits in PCOS (reduced free androgen index, improved menstrual regularity), and systematic reviews suggest associations with oocyte quality in ART settings. Evidence for direct fertility outcomes remains preliminary.

• ostholeScientific

  Osthole is the principal bioactive coumarin of Cnidium monnieri with demonstrated phytoestrogenic activity at ERα and ERβ. Preclinical studies show it improves ovarian function, induces ovulation, and reduces cyst formation. Preliminary clinical data from TCM-based studies support use in PCOS and anovulatory infertility.

• paeoniflorinScientific

  Paeoniflorin is the principal bioactive monoterpene glycoside of Paeonia lactiflora (white peony root), used in TCM for dysmenorrhea, PCOS, and menstrual irregularity. It inhibits ovarian testosterone production via P450c17 suppression and modulates GnRH/LH signaling. Japanese clinical studies using paeoniflorin-containing Kampo formulas show improvements in PCOS and anovulation.

• palmitateScientific

  Vitamin A palmitate (as retinoic acid) is essential for embryological development and plays a role in folliculogenesis and uterine function. During pregnancy, adequate retinyl palmitate intake is required for normal fetal organogenesis, while excess intake is teratogenic.

• phytoestrogensScientific

  Phytoestrogens are plant-derived compounds (isoflavones, lignans, coumestans) that bind estrogen receptors and modulate estrogenic activity. Multiple systematic reviews and RCTs support their use for menopausal vasomotor symptoms, vaginal health, bone density, and fertility-related hormonal balance. Soy and red clover isoflavones are the most rigorously studied sources.

• pineScientific

  Pycnogenol has been studied in RCTs for dysmenorrhea, endometriosis, and menopausal symptoms. A randomized double-blind trial in 200 peri-menopausal women showed significant changes in LDL and HDL cholesterol. Preliminary clinical data indicate reduction in pelvic pain associated with endometriosis and menstrual cramps. The 2024 review of 39 RDP trials confirms women's health as a documented benefit domain.

• pine barkScientific

  Pycnogenol has documented clinical evidence across multiple female reproductive applications: menstrual cramp relief (RCTs), endometriosis symptom reduction (clinical studies), and menopausal symptom alleviation (two large RCTs). Patent protection exists for its use in dysmenorrhea. The extract does not exert estrogenic activity.

• pomegranateScientific

  Pomegranate has clinical evidence for effects on the female reproductive system: improving PCOS hormonal and metabolic parameters, reducing menopausal symptoms (hot flashes, FSH), and supporting estrogen-related activity via phytoestrogens in pomegranate seed oil. RCTs and meta-analyses document these effects across reproductive lifecycle stages.

• pregnenoloneScientific

  Pregnenolone is the biochemical precursor to all female sex steroids (progesterone, estrogens, DHEA), produced in ovaries and adrenal glands. Its adequate supply is essential for ovulation, luteal function, and hormonal balance throughout the reproductive lifespan and into menopause.

• progesteroneScientific

  Progesterone is an endogenous steroid hormone and pharmaceutical agent with fundamental roles in the female reproductive cycle, implantation, pregnancy maintenance, and menopausal hormone therapy. FDA-approved bioidentical progesterone (Prometrium) is used in HRT, luteal phase support in IVF, and prevention of preterm birth. Natural progesterone creams are also widely used.

• red cloverScientific

  Red clover (Trifolium pratense) is a significant phytoestrogen source containing formononetin, biochanin A, daidzein, and genistein. Multiple RCTs have shown red clover isoflavone supplementation (40–80 mg/day) significantly reduces menopausal hot flushes and improves vaginal cytology. A meta-analysis confirmed its efficacy for vasomotor symptoms versus placebo.

• resveratrolScientific

  Human RCT evidence supports resveratrol's role across multiple domains of female reproductive health, including menopause symptom management and PCOS. A meta-analysis of 4 PCOS RCTs showed significant reductions in testosterone, LH, and DHEAS. RESHAW documented broad postmenopausal benefits. Resveratrol's phytoestrogenic activity provides the primary mechanistic rationale.

• rhubarbScientific

  Rhubarb has scientific evidence for effects on the female reproductive system, particularly for menopausal and perimenopausal symptoms through ERβ agonism. Clinical use for endometriosis (via blood-stasis resolution) is documented in TCM formulas. Multiple RCTs confirm Siberian rhubarb extract efficacy on hot flashes, anxiety, and sleep in peri/post-menopausal women.

• rhubarb rootScientific

  Rhubarb root extract ERr 731 (from Rheum rhaponticum) acts as a selective ERβ agonist, with multiple human RCTs demonstrating efficacy across the full spectrum of perimenopausal and menopausal symptoms. The female reproductive system is among the most robustly evidenced organ targets for rhubarb in clinical research.

• roseScientific

  Rosa damascena has the most extensive evidence among rose preparations for female reproductive health. RCTs support its use for primary dysmenorrhea (comparable to mefenamic acid), PMS, menopause symptoms (depression, anxiety, stress, sexual function), and irregular cycles (traditional). Multiple systematic reviews confirm these reproductive health effects.

• royal jellyScientific

  RJ binds estrogen receptors α and β, supporting folliculogenesis, endometrial health, and menopausal symptom management. RCTs confirm benefit for vaginal atrophy, menopausal symptoms, and menstrual regularity in PCOS. Animal data show restoration of normal ovarian follicular cycles under hormonal disruption.

• rubia cordifoliaScientific

  R. cordifolia has documented use in the clinical treatment of abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) and primary dysmenorrhea within traditional Asian medicine systems, supported by network pharmacology and experimental studies. Its mechanisms include COX-2 and cPLA2 inhibition, improvement of blood clotting via the coagulation cascade, and anti-inflammatory activity via mollugin. Multiple prescriptions are used clinically in China for gynecological conditions.

• safflowerScientific

  Safflower is one of the oldest documented gynecological herbs in TCM, Ayurveda, and Persian medicine, used for dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, postpartum abdominal pain, and menstrual irregularity. In TCM, it is indicated for amenorrhea due to blood stasis, dysmenorrhea, and postpartum lochioschesis. Animal studies demonstrate a dose-dependent uterotonic effect, with safflower extract increasing contraction frequency and amplitude of uterine smooth muscle in dogs, rats, and mice. Traditional use and uterotonic pharmacology are well-documented in PMC reviews.

• saffronScientific

  Saffron (Crocus sativus) has been studied in multiple RCTs for PMS and PMDD, showing significant reductions in mood symptoms. A systematic review and meta-analysis confirmed its efficacy for PMS symptom relief. Active compounds crocin and safranal modulate serotonin reuptake, relevant to premenstrual mood dysregulation.

• sageScientific

  Clinical RCTs confirm sage's efficacy in reducing menopausal hot flashes, night sweats, and associated vasomotor symptoms in postmenopausal women. A systematic review with meta-analysis and multiple RCTs support phytoestrogenic and anti-dopaminergic mechanisms. Traditional use for menstrual regulation is also well-documented.

• schisandraScientific

  A 2016 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (Climacteric, 19(6):574–580) in 36 women aged 40–70 found Schisandra extract (BMO-30) reduced the Kupperman Index by 41.2% vs. 27.2% for placebo at 12 weeks, significantly relieving hot flushes, sweating, and palpitations. Clinical research has also been conducted for polycystic ovary syndrome.

• secoisolariciresinol diglucosideScientific

  Secoisolariciresinol diglucoside (SDG) is the principal lignan of flaxseed, converted by gut bacteria to the bioactive enterolignans enterodiol and enterolactone, which act as weak phytoestrogens via ERα/ERβ binding. Clinical studies show SDG from flaxseed supports menopausal symptom relief and PCOS hormonal parameters. Flaxseed is the richest dietary source.

• sesameScientific

  Sesame lignans are converted to enterolactone, a phytoestrogen that weakly modulates estrogen receptors and SHBG — directly relevant to female reproductive hormonal balance. A 5-week clinical study in 24 postmenopausal women found hormone status improvements with 50 mg/day sesame. Ayurvedic and TCM traditions extensively document sesame's role in supporting female reproductive health across the lifecycle.

• soyScientific

  Soy foods and extracts contain phytoestrogenic isoflavones (genistein, daidzein) scientifically supported for menopausal vasomotor symptoms, bone protection, and lipid management in peri- and postmenopausal women. Multiple systematic reviews and RCTs confirm modest but significant benefits. EFSA has confirmed long-term safety up to 150 mg isoflavones/day.

• soy isoflavonesScientific

  Soy isoflavones (primarily genistein and daidzein) are phytoestrogens with ERα/ERβ binding activity. Numerous RCTs support their use for menopausal vasomotor symptoms, with a 2009 systematic review of 17 trials showing consistent reductions in hot flush frequency. EFSA (2015) concluded long-term intake up to 150 mg/day is safe for hormone-sensitive tissues.

• soybeanScientific

  Soy isoflavones exert documented effects on the female reproductive system via phytoestrogenic activity, with clinical evidence for effects on menopausal vasomotor symptoms, bone density, and endometrial tissue. They have been used as an alternative to hormone replacement therapy for perimenopausal and postmenopausal symptom management. The efficacy and safety of soy isoflavones for preventing endometrial cancer are not established.

• spearmint leafScientific

  Spearmint has clinically confirmed anti-androgenic effects in women, reducing free and total testosterone while raising LH, FSH, and estradiol. These effects have direct implications for PCOS management, hirsutism, and hormonal balance in the female reproductive system.

• SPMs (specialized pro-resolving mediators)Scientific

  SPMs are produced in peritoneal fluid and endometrial tissue, with reduced levels documented in endometriosis patients. Human placenta constitutively biosynthesizes SPMs. SPMs regulate uterine inflammation and may influence reproductive outcomes.

• st. john's wortScientific

  SJW has been clinically studied for perimenopausal and postmenopausal symptoms, with RCT evidence for reduction in hot flash frequency and severity, and for improvement in postmenopausal depression. NCCIH and Mayo Clinic acknowledge this evidence base.

• sumaScientific

  P. paniculata root consumption significantly elevated plasma estradiol-17β and progesterone in female mice over 30 days (Oshima & Gu, 2003). Traditional use encompasses PMS, menopausal symptom relief, and hormonal balance. Pharmacological databases flag its hormonal-like effects as relevant to female reproductive health.

• tribulusScientific

  Tribulus (Tribulus terrestris) has traditional use in Ayurveda and TCM for female reproductive conditions and clinical evidence from RCTs for female sexual dysfunction and endocrine infertility. Steroidal saponins (protodioscin) are proposed to modulate LH and estrogen, with clinical studies showing FSFI improvements in women with hypoactive sexual desire.

• tribulus terrestrisScientific

  Tribulus terrestris has traditional use in Ayurveda and TCM for female reproductive conditions, and clinical evidence from RCTs supports use for female sexual dysfunction (FSFI improvements) and PCOS-related endocrine infertility. Its steroidal saponins (protodioscin) are proposed to modulate LH and estrogen levels.

• turmericScientific

  Curcumin has been studied in RCTs for PCOS (insulin resistance, androgen levels, inflammation) and shows preclinical evidence for endometriosis. Traditional use for dysmenorrhea and menstrual disorders is documented in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine. Clinical evidence for PCOS is emerging; for endometriosis it remains preclinical.

• ubiquinolScientific

  Ubiquinol supports female reproductive function through mitochondrial energy provision to oocytes, antioxidant protection of ovarian tissue, and modulation of hormonal parameters in PCOS. Clinical evidence includes IVF outcome improvements in poor ovarian responders, oocyte quality improvements in aging women, and hormone/metabolic improvements in PCOS. Ubiquinol biosynthesis declines with age and women have lower CoQ10 than men.

• valerian rootScientific

  Valerian root has the most clinical evidence in the female reproductive system for primary dysmenorrhea. A 2025 systematic review and meta-analysis (PubMed PMID 40965071; 5 RCTs, n=408) found significant pain reduction with valerian versus control (SMD = −1.03; 95% CI, −1.74 to −0.33; p=0.004). Clinical trials have also examined PMS symptom severity and menopausal sleep disturbance, with modest positive findings. Proposed mechanisms include uterine smooth muscle relaxation and inhibition of prostaglandin release.

• vitamin AScientific

  Vitamin A is necessary for proper female reproductive function. Deficiency impairs folliculogenesis, placentation, and fetal development. Retinoic acid initiates meiosis in the female gonad during embryogenesis. Excess preformed vitamin A is teratogenic, causing birth defects at high doses, and is contraindicated in pregnancy.

• vitamin B12Scientific

  Vitamin B12 is critical to the female reproductive system through its roles in DNA synthesis, methylation, and cell division required for oocyte maturation and embryo development. Deficiency is associated with impaired embryo quality, elevated homocysteine-related implantation failure, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. B12 is also essential for placental transfer to the developing fetus.

• vitamin B6Scientific

  Vitamin B6 supports female reproductive health primarily through its roles in sex hormone metabolism, serotonin synthesis, and prostaglandin regulation. It is the most studied single nutritional supplement for premenstrual syndrome and has documented clinical benefit for PMS symptoms including those related to the luteal phase.

• vitamin B9 (folate)Scientific

  Folate (natural form of vitamin B9) is scientifically essential for female reproductive health, particularly periconceptional supplementation to prevent neural tube defects. It supports DNA synthesis, oocyte maturation, and implantation. WHO and NIH formally recommend folate supplementation before and during pregnancy.

• vitamin B9 (methylfolate/5-MTHF)Scientific

  5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF) is the bioactive form of folate directly used in one-carbon metabolism, with particular relevance for women with MTHFR polymorphisms who cannot efficiently convert folic acid. It supports periconceptional neural tube defect prevention and oocyte quality, and is recommended for preconception and pregnancy supplementation.

• vitamin EScientific

  Vitamin E was first identified as essential for reproduction in animal models in 1922. In women, clinical trials demonstrate benefits for dysmenorrhea, PMS, endometrial thickness in implantation failure, and metabolic/hormonal parameters in PCOS. Evidence for hot flashes is covered separately.

• vitex agnus-castusScientific

  Vitex agnus-castus (chasteberry) is clinically supported for PMS, PMDD, latent hyperprolactinaemia, and luteal phase deficiency via dopaminergic activity reducing prolactin. A systematic review of 12 RCTs found it superior to placebo in the majority of PMS trials. Commission E and ESCOP have issued positive monographs for menstrual cycle support.

• wheat germScientific

  Wheat germ extract has been specifically tested in two clinical trials—one for primary dysmenorrhea and one for postpartum pain—both finding significant pain reduction via prostaglandin-modulating mechanisms. Its folate content is also critical for periconceptional neural tube protection. B vitamins, zinc, and vitamin E further support hormonal and reproductive health.

• yarrowScientific

  Yarrow has the most comprehensive evidence base for female reproductive system support of any of its pharmacological domains. ESCOP approves it for spasms associated with dysmenorrhea; multiple clinical trials demonstrate reduced menstrual pain and PMS symptoms; and it has documented emmenagogue, antispasmodic, and in vitro estrogenic activity.

• zincScientific

  Zinc is essential for female reproductive function, supporting oocyte maturation, fertilization, embryo development, and hormonal regulation. Zinc deficiency impairs FSH and LH synthesis, disrupts the menstrual cycle, and increases risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Clinical RCT evidence supports zinc supplementation in PCOS (improving insulin resistance and lipid balance) and in primary dysmenorrhea (reducing menstrual pain).

• agnusideTraditional

  Agnuside is an iridoid glycoside and characteristic marker compound of Vitex agnus-castus, contributing to that plant's traditional and clinically studied effects on PMS, hyperprolactinaemia, and luteal phase regulation. As with other Vitex constituents, isolated clinical evidence is limited but the parent plant has substantial RCT evidence.

• alchemillaTraditional

  Alchemilla (Lady's Mantle, Alchemilla vulgaris) has centuries of traditional use in European herbalism for menstrual disorders, menorrhagia, leucorrhea, and menopausal support. Its astringent tannin content provides a plausible mechanism for uterine hemostatic effects. ESCOP has issued a monograph for its traditional use in mild menstrual disorders.

• aletrisTraditional

  Aletris farinosa (true unicorn root, star grass) has traditional use in North American Eclectic medicine as a female reproductive tonic, used for menstrual irregularity, amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and threatened miscarriage. Contains steroidal saponins. No modern clinical trials have evaluated it; classification is traditional.

• amberTraditional

  Amber (Hu Po) has extensive TCM indications for the female reproductive system including dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, irregular cycles, postpartum blood retention, and uterine masses, all attributed to blood stasis. Western traditions also regarded amber as beneficial to the uterus.

• angelicaTraditional

  Angelica species (principally A. sinensis, Dong Quai) are used in TCM for female reproductive conditions including dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and menopausal symptoms. Angelica species contain phthalides and ferulic acid with antispasmodic and circulation-supporting properties. Clinical evidence for monotherapy is limited; primarily traditional use.

• ashokaTraditional

  Ashoka (Saraca asoca) is a foundational Ayurvedic herb for female reproductive health, traditionally used for menorrhagia, dysmenorrhea, uterine disorders, and as a uterine tonic. Preclinical studies show uterotonic, estrogenic, and anti-inflammatory activities. Limited human clinical data support use in menorrhagia and leucorrhea.

• bayberryTraditional

  Bayberry has documented traditional use for conditions of the female reproductive system, including excessive menstrual bleeding, uterine hemorrhage, and vaginal discharge (leukorrhea). Its astringent properties are the mechanistic basis. Multiple historical herbal references document these uses.

• bethrootTraditional

  Bethroot (Trillium erectum or T. pendulum) is a traditional Native American and Eclectic medicinal plant used for uterine hemorrhage, dysmenorrhea, leucorrhea, and as a parturient aid. Contains steroidal saponins. No modern clinical trials exist; classification is traditional based on ethnobotanical documentation.

• blessed thistleTraditional

  Blessed thistle (Cnicus benedictus) has traditional use in European and North American herbalism for menstrual regulation, dysmenorrhea, and as a galactagogue (lactation support). The German Commission E has approved it for loss of appetite and dyspepsia; use for female reproductive conditions is traditional. Clinical evidence for gynecological indications is limited.

• blue cohoshTraditional

  Blue cohosh (Caulophyllum thalictroides) has a long history of traditional use by Native Americans and Eclectic physicians as an emmenagogue, uterine antispasmodic, and parturient herb. A US survey found 64% of midwives use it to induce labor. Scientific evidence is limited and safety concerns exist; case reports associate it with neonatal adverse events.

• borageTraditional

  Borage has documented traditional use across female reproductive indications including PMS, menopause, lactation support, and menstrual disorders. GLA's role in prostaglandin modulation provides a plausible mechanism. Systematic reviews find insufficient high-quality evidence for clinical recommendation, placing this primarily in the traditional category.

• borage oilTraditional

  Borage oil is traditionally used for multiple female reproductive concerns including PMS, menopause, and lactation promotion. GLA's role in prostaglandin balance and prolactin modulation provides a plausible mechanistic basis. Clinical RCT evidence specific to borage oil for female reproductive endpoints is lacking; most evidence is traditional and mechanism-based.

• bugbaneTraditional

  Bugbane (Actaea/Cimicifuga species, including A. racemosa syn. Cimicifuga racemosa) encompasses several species traditionally used by Native Americans for female reproductive conditions, menstrual cramps, and labor support. The most studied species (black cohosh) has RCT evidence; the traditional use of the broader 'bugbane' category is primarily traditional.

• bupleurum falcatumTraditional

  B. falcatum is a central herb in TCM for female reproductive conditions, used in the most widely prescribed women's health formulas (Xiao Yao San, Jia Wei Xiao Yao San) for menstrual irregularity, PMS, menopause, and uterine disorders. A clinical trial of a B. falcatum-dominant formula showed efficacy for menopausal symptoms.

• calendulaTraditional

  Calendula is classified as an emmenagogue, uterine tonic, and antispasmodic across Ayurvedic, Unani, Western, and Eclectic herbal traditions. It is used for menstrual irregularity, dysmenorrhoea, leucorrhoea, and vaginitis. The ESCOP cites clinical evidence for vaginal candidiasis specifically.

• cassia barkTraditional

  Cassia bark is one of the most consistently cited TCM herbs for female reproductive complaints including menstrual irregularities, amenorrhea, menstrual cramps, and dysmenorrhea due to cold-type patterns. RxList lists menstrual problems and menopausal symptoms among traditional oral uses. No clinical trials targeting female reproductive endpoints were identified.

• casticinTraditional

  Casticin is a methoxyflavone and primary bioactive constituent of Vitex agnus-castus, contributing to that plant's well-documented female reproductive effects (PMS, hyperprolactinaemia, luteal phase deficiency). Preclinical evidence shows hormone-receptor interactions and anti-inflammatory activity; isolated human clinical evidence is limited but supported by the parent plant's RCT data.

• catjang cowpeaTraditional

  Traditional use of cowpea for dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) and as a strengthening food for pregnant women is documented in African and Asian folk medicine. Ayurvedic texts record cowpea as increasing breast milk production. No clinical evidence exists.

• celeryTraditional

  Celery has traditional use in Ayurvedic and Western herbal medicine as an emmenagogue and antispasmodic for menstrual regulation and dysmenorrhea. Apiol in celery seed is traditionally regarded as antispasmodic for smooth muscle. Clinical data come only from a multi-ingredient combination product trial.

• chaff flowerTraditional

  A. aspera is used in Ayurveda for menstrual disorders, as an emmenagogue, and has documented abortifacient properties. Traditional use for gynecological disorders including dysmenorrhea and facilitating delivery is widespread.

• clary sageTraditional

  Clary sage (Salvia sclarea) is used in aromatherapy and European herbal medicine for dysmenorrhea, menstrual regulation, and labor support. Its essential oil contains sclareol, a phytoestrogenic compound. Limited clinical evidence from small studies suggests inhalation may reduce dysmenorrhea and cortisol. Classification is primarily traditional.

• clematisTraditional

  Clematis armandii and C. montana ('Chuan Mu Tong') are recorded in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and TCM materia medica to 'stimulate menstrual flow and promote lactation' (galactogogue) and to address amenorrhea. These are well-documented traditional indications. No clinical evidence exists.

• cnidiumTraditional

  Cnidium monnieri (She Chuang Zi) is a traditional Chinese herb used for female reproductive conditions including leucorrhea, vaginal itching, and menstrual irregularity. Contains osthole, a coumarin with demonstrated estrogenic and antiparasitic activity. Used topically and internally in TCM for gynecological conditions.

• commiphoraTraditional

  Commiphora myrrh is documented as an emmenagogue in Unani, Ayurvedic, Chinese, and Arabic medical traditions, used for amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia, and pelvic inflammatory disease. No human RCTs for gynecological indications have been published.

• cordycepsTraditional

  Cordyceps (Cordyceps sinensis and C. militaris) is a traditional Chinese tonic mushroom used for female reproductive conditions including irregular menses, infertility, and menopausal fatigue. Active nucleosides and polysaccharides modulate the HPG axis. Limited clinical evidence exists for specific female reproductive endpoints; primarily traditional.

• cramp barkTraditional

  Cramp bark (Viburnum opulus) has documented traditional use in North American herbalism as a uterine antispasmodic for dysmenorrhea and uterine cramping. Preclinical studies including human uterine tissue experiments confirm relaxant effects. No randomized clinical trials have been conducted for human gynecological endpoints.

• cynomoriumTraditional

  Cynomorium coccineum (Suo Yang) is used in TCM and traditional Mediterranean medicine as a tonic for reproductive vitality. In TCM it is prescribed for female reproductive deficiency, menstrual irregularity, and menopausal complaints. Preclinical evidence shows estrogenic and antioxidant activity. Clinical human evidence is limited; classification is primarily traditional.

• damianaTraditional

  Damiana (Turnera diffusa) has traditional use in Mexican, Native American, and Mayan medicine as a female aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, and reproductive tonic. It has been used to increase female libido, regulate menstruation, and support hormonal balance. Phytoestrogenic flavonoids are present; clinical evidence is limited but animal studies confirm aphrodisiac activity.

• dandelionTraditional

  Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) has traditional use in European and North American herbalism as a supportive herb for female reproductive conditions, particularly for liver support (facilitating estrogen metabolism/clearance), PMS-related water retention, and as a nutritive tonic. Clinical evidence specifically for female reproductive endpoints is limited; primary use is traditional.

• devil's clawTraditional

  Devil's Claw has documented traditional use related to the female reproductive system, including use in childbirth/midwifery, for menstrual problems, and as a traditional oxytocic. These uses are recorded in multiple ethnobotanical sources. No clinical trials exist for reproductive system outcomes.

• dioscoreaTraditional

  Dioscorea (wild yam) has extensive traditional use for dysmenorrhea, menopausal symptoms, and uterine cramping across Native American, TCM, and Ayurvedic traditions. Its steroidal saponin diosgenin is a progesterone precursor industrially, but in vivo conversion in humans is not demonstrated. One RCT found no significant benefit for menopausal symptoms versus placebo.

• diosgeninTraditional

  Diosgenin is a steroidal saponin found in wild yam (Dioscorea species) and fenugreek, traditionally used in female reproductive contexts. It structurally resembles progesterone and was historically the precursor for industrial synthesis of steroidal hormones. Its phytoestrogenic activity supports ovarian function; however, direct human conversion to hormones in vivo has not been demonstrated.

• dogwoodTraditional

  Cornus officinalis is traditionally used in TCM for menorrhagia, leukorrhea, and reproductive deficiency in women. Jamaican dogwood is traditionally used for dysmenorrhea and uterine/ovarian spasm. Both uses are documented across herbal pharmacopeias, though human trial evidence is absent.

• dong quaiTraditional

  Dong quai (Angelica sinensis) has been a cornerstone of Traditional Chinese Medicine for female reproductive health, used for menstrual irregularities, dysmenorrhea, and as a 'female tonic.' Scientific evidence for menopausal symptoms as a monotherapy is weak; a double-blind RCT found no estrogenic effect vs. placebo. Most use is in multi-herb formulations.

• dong quai rootTraditional

  Dong quai root is the primary preparation of Angelica sinensis used in Traditional Chinese Medicine for female reproductive conditions including menstrual irregularity, dysmenorrhea, and menopausal complaints. Clinical evidence as monotherapy is limited; one placebo-controlled RCT found no estrogenic activity versus placebo.

• evening primrose oilTraditional

  Evening primrose oil (EPO) is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and linoleic acid (LA), used traditionally and in practice for PMS, menopausal hot flushes, cervical mucus quality, and hormonal balance. Clinical evidence is limited; an RCT found oral gamolenic acid modestly reduced menopausal flushing vs. placebo. It is also used for cyclic mastalgia.

• false unicorn rootTraditional

  False unicorn root (Chamaelirium luteum) has extensive traditional use in North American herbalism as a female reproductive tonic for ovarian dysfunction, threatened miscarriage, morning sickness, and hormonal imbalance. Contains steroidal saponins including chamaelirin. Scientific clinical evidence is very limited; use is primarily based on 19th-century Eclectic tradition.

• feverfewTraditional

  Feverfew has one of its strongest traditional associations with female reproductive complaints, including menstrual regulation, dysmenorrhea, and labor. The NCCIH, PMC systematic review, and ethnobotanical records from Greco-Roman, European, Mexican, and Andean traditions all document this. No clinical trials address reproductive endpoints.

• fo-tiTraditional

  Fo-ti (Polygonum multiflorum, He Shou Wu) is a TCM herb with traditional use for female reproductive tonification, anti-aging, and addressing kidney-liver deficiency patterns including those manifesting as menstrual irregularity and menopausal symptoms. Stilbene glycosides are proposed active compounds. Hepatotoxicity cases limit use.

• giant trilliumTraditional

  Giant trillium (Trillium chloropetalum or related species) has traditional use in Native American medicine for female reproductive conditions including uterine hemorrhage and as a parturient preparation, similar to bethroot (T. erectum). Classification is traditional based on ethnobotanical records; no modern clinical evidence exists.

• golden ragwortTraditional

  Golden ragwort (Packera aurea, formerly Senecio aureus) was a major traditional North American Eclectic medicine herb for female reproductive disorders, used for dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and uterine disorders. Contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids which are hepatotoxic; modern use is discouraged. Classification is traditional with significant safety concerns.

• goldensealTraditional

  Goldenseal is traditionally used for conditions of the female reproductive system including vaginal infections, uterine inflammation, and heavy periods, with documented historical use as a vaginal douche and for hemorrhagic conditions. Modern use in a vaginitis device (Cerviron) provides some clinical context.

• gravel rootTraditional

  Gravel root was traditionally used as a uterine tonic and partus preparator by Native American tribes and Eclectic physicians, and is recorded for chronic uterine disease, painful periods, and pelvic organ debility. No clinical studies exist.

• horny goat weedTraditional

  Horny goat weed (Epimedium species) is a traditional Chinese medicine herb used for female and male reproductive conditions including low libido and menopausal complaints. Icariin, its principal flavonoid, demonstrates phytoestrogenic ERβ activity and inhibits phosphodiesterase-5. Traditional TCM use spans centuries; clinical evidence in women is limited.

• hyacinth beanTraditional

  Ayurvedic use of L. purpureus flowers to promote menstruation and treat uterine inflammation, TCM use of the seed for excessive leucorrhoea, and Karbi tribal use of roots as an antifertility/abortifacient agent collectively establish documented traditional use across the female reproductive system.

• lady's mantleTraditional

  Lady's Mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris) is a traditional European herb used for centuries for menorrhagia, dysmenorrhea, leucorrhea, and menopausal complaints. High tannin content provides astringent and hemostatic activity relevant to uterine mucosa. Traditional use is extensively documented but modern clinical trial data are absent.

• leptadeniaTraditional

  Leptadenia reticulata (Jivanti) is an important Ayurvedic herb used as a female reproductive tonic, galactagogue, and for treating leucorrhea and menstrual disorders. Preclinical studies confirm estrogenic activity and galactopoietic effects. Listed in traditional Indian medicine databases for female reproductive support.

• ligusticumTraditional

  Ligusticum chuanxiong (Chuan Xiong) is a key TCM herb for female reproductive conditions including dysmenorrhea, irregular menses, and postpartum blood stagnation. Contains phthalides (Z-ligustilide, butylidenephthalide) with uterotonic and antispasmodic activity. Used in classical formulas such as Si Wu Tang for menstrual regulation.

• lotus seedTraditional

  TCM documents lotus seeds for female reproductive conditions including heavy menstruation, leukorrhea, and vaginal discharge through kidney-astringent mechanisms. No pharmacological or clinical studies have examined female reproductive endpoints specifically.

• momordicaTraditional

  Momordica charantia is documented in traditional medicine as an emmenagogue, galactagogue, and treatment for dysmenorrhea, leucorrhea, and menstrual irregularities. Animal studies show abortifacient activity. Traditional galactagogue use is documented across South Asia. Human clinical evidence is absent and safety in pregnancy/lactation is uncertain.

• morindaTraditional

  M. officinalis is classified in TCM as 'warming the uterus' and tonifying kidney yang to support female reproductive function, including treatment of menstrual irregularities, infertility, and uterine coldness. These traditional indications are consistently documented across ethnopharmacological reviews. Estrogen-like activity of the root has been proposed as a potential mechanism.

• motherwortTraditional

  Motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca) has traditional use in European and Chinese herbal medicine for menstrual irregularity, amenorrhea, and uterine tonic effects. It contains alkaloids (leonurine) that demonstrate uterotonic activity in preclinical studies. Scientific evidence in humans is limited; it is classified as primarily traditional for female reproductive use.

• oreganoTraditional

  Oregano is one of the most consistently documented emmenagogue herbs in Western herbal tradition, with its use for promoting menstruation, relieving menstrual cramps, and addressing PMS symptoms documented from ancient Greek medicine through 19th-century Eclectic medical practice. Multiple traditional medicine systems independently record this application. No human clinical trials for reproductive endpoints have been published.

• oriental arborvitaeTraditional

  P. orientalis is documented in multiple authoritative sources as used for female reproductive conditions including menorrhagia, irregular periods, menstrual cramps, and dysfunctional uterine bleeding. The Chinese Pharmacopoeia lists dysfunctional uterine bleeding as an indication for Platycladi cacumen. WebMD/NLM confirm these traditional uses.

• PABA (para-aminobenzoic acid)Traditional

  PABA has a documented historical use for female infertility, attributed to possible enhancement of estrogenic activity. The sole primary clinical report is a 1942 uncontrolled series by Sieve in which 75% of 16 infertile women became pregnant during PABA supplementation. No modern studies have reproduced this and it remains a traditional claim.

• parsleyTraditional

  Parsley has extensive traditional use across the female reproductive system: as an emmenagogue for delayed menstruation, uterine stimulant, mild remedy for dysmenorrhoea, and antigalactagogue during lactation. The compounds apiol and myristicin are responsible for uterine stimulant effects, documented across multiple historical and folk medicine systems.

• partheniumTraditional

  Feverfew has one of its most historically deep-rooted traditional applications in female reproductive health, including menstrual regulation, menstrual cramp relief, promotion of uterine contractions, and management of labor. The NCCIH lists menstrual disorders and infertility as traditional uses. No clinical RCTs address reproductive endpoints specifically.

• passionflowerTraditional

  Passionflower (Passiflora incarnata) has traditional use in North American and European herbalism for menopausal anxiety, insomnia, and PMS-related mood symptoms. Some clinical evidence supports its anxiolytic effects relevant to menopausal nervous symptoms. Not a direct uterine or hormonal herb; rather supports the nervous system component of female reproductive transitions.

• peachTraditional

  Peach kernel (Tao Ren) is one of the most important TCM herbs for female reproductive conditions, used for irregular menstruation, dysmenorrhea, postpartum blood stasis, and amenorrhea. It is a principal ingredient in multiple classical gynecological formulas.

• pennycressTraditional

  Pennycress has extensive traditional documentation for female reproductive conditions, including dysmenorrhea, endometriosis, post-partum pain, menstrual irregularities, and womb disorders. The plant was classified as an emmenagogue and was used across Chinese, Tibetan, and European herbal traditions for gynecological complaints.

• pennyroyalTraditional

  Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) has a very long history of traditional use as an emmenagogue (to stimulate menstrual flow) and abortifacient in European, Native American, and other traditions. Its active compound pulegone is toxic at higher doses and has caused fatalities; professional herbalists and health authorities caution strongly against its use for reproductive purposes.

• peonyTraditional

  White peony root (Paeonia lactiflora, Bai Shao) is a foundational TCM herb for female reproductive disorders including dysmenorrhea, menstrual irregularity, PCOS, and menopausal complaints. The active compound paeoniflorin modulates gonadotropin release and inhibits androgen production. Used in classical formulas like Gui Zhi Fu Ling Wan and Shao Yao Gan Cao Tang.

• pituitary substanceTraditional

  Pituitary substance has been used in glandular therapy traditions to support female reproductive function, given the pituitary's secretion of FSH, LH, and prolactin — the hormones governing the menstrual cycle, ovulation, and lactation. This use dates to early 20th-century organotherapy. No modern clinical evidence supports oral supplementation for this system.

• raspberryTraditional

  Red raspberry leaf (Rubus idaeus) has extensive traditional use as a uterine tonic, partus preparator for the last trimester of pregnancy, and for menstrual discomfort. It is widely used by midwives and pregnant women. Limited clinical evidence exists; one RCT showed it may reduce labor duration. Classification is primarily traditional.

• rehmanniaTraditional

  Rehmannia glutinosa (Di Huang) is a foundational TCM herb used in female reproductive formulas for menstrual irregularity, menopausal symptoms, and uterine bleeding. The dried root (Shu Di Huang) nourishes 'yin and blood' in TCM. Iridoid glycosides including catalpol demonstrate neuroprotective and hormonal modulating effects in preclinical studies.

• rehmannia glutinosaTraditional

  Rehmannia glutinosa is the specific botanical name for the TCM herb Di Huang (Chinese foxglove root), fundamental to female reproductive formulas in Traditional Chinese Medicine. It supports yin-blood and is used for menopausal symptoms, uterine bleeding, and menstrual irregularity. Preclinical evidence shows hormonal and anti-inflammatory activity.

• sarsaparillaTraditional

  Sarsaparilla has documented traditional use in women's health for menstrual support, menopause symptom management, and as a reproductive tonic, noted in PeaceHealth and documented across South American, Mexican, and Asian traditions. A progesterone-like effect is historically claimed but remains unverified. Estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities have been described for at least one Smilax species.

• saw palmettoTraditional

  Saw palmetto has a centuries-long traditional use in female reproductive health, including treatment of painful menstruation, infertility, underdeveloped breasts, and increased lactation. Modern interest centers on its antiandrogenic properties for PCOS-related hyperandrogenism, but direct high-quality RCTs in women remain absent. Its mechanistic rationale via 5-alpha-reductase inhibition and potential antiestrogenic/antiandrogenic balance is documented.

• shepherd's purseTraditional

  Shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) has traditional use in European and TCM herbalism as a uterine hemostatic and oxytocic agent for menorrhagia, postpartum hemorrhage, and irregular menses. Preclinical evidence confirms oxytocic and hemostatic activity. Clinical evidence in humans is limited; traditional use spans thousands of years across multiple traditions.

• sichuan lovageTraditional

  Sichuan Lovage (Ligusticum chuanxiong, Chuan Xiong) is a major TCM herb for female reproductive conditions including dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and postpartum pain. Its phthalide compounds (Z-ligustilide) mediate uterine antispasmodic and blood-activating effects. It is a primary ingredient in classical TCM gynecological formulas.

• smartweedTraditional

  Smartweed has documented traditional use for multiple female reproductive conditions including menorrhagia, dysmenorrhea, menstrual irregularities, and fertility regulation, across European, South Asian, and East Asian medical traditions. Limited animal studies support antifertility effects.

• solomon's sealTraditional

  Solomon's seal is a documented female reproductive tonic across Western eclectic, Ayurvedic, indigenous North American, and TCM traditions, with applications including menorrhagia, leukorrhea, menstrual cramps, vaginal dryness, fertility support, and postpartum recovery.

• squawvineTraditional

  Squawvine (Mitchella repens) is a traditional Native American herb used for centuries to tone the uterus, facilitate labor, and address menstrual irregularity. It was widely used by Cherokee and other Indigenous peoples and later adopted by Eclectic physicians for uterine preparation before childbirth. Modern clinical evidence is absent; use is purely traditional.

• szechuan lovageTraditional

  CX is one of TCM's most important herbs for female reproductive health, used for over 2,000 years for menstrual disorders, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, and postpartum blood stasis. Its uterine smooth muscle-relaxing ligustilide provides a pharmacological mechanism, and CX is a primary ingredient in classical gynecological formulas. Clinical trial evidence for reproductive endpoints specifically is limited.

• vanillaTraditional

  Vanilla has a multi-century traditional use for menstrual disorders including dysmenorrhea (menstrual cramps), amenorrhea, and uterine spasms. These uses are documented in Aztec medicine, 18th-century European pharmacopoeias, and multiple herbalist monographs. No clinical or preclinical reproductive system studies have been conducted.

• viburnumTraditional

  Viburnum species (cramp bark V. opulus; black haw V. prunifolium) have traditional use in North American and European herbalism as uterine antispasmodics for dysmenorrhea and threatened miscarriage. Animal and human uterine tissue studies confirm antispasmodic effects. No randomized clinical trials have evaluated efficacy for PMS or dysmenorrhea in humans.

• vitexicarpinTraditional

  Vitexicarpin (casticin) is a flavonoid isolated from Vitex agnus-castus (chaste tree), contributing to that plant's female reproductive effects. Preclinical studies demonstrate anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative, and hormone-modulating properties relevant to uterine and ovarian function. It is primarily characterized through its parent plant's traditional and clinical use.

• wild yamTraditional

  Wild yam has long traditional use for female reproductive complaints including dysmenorrhea, PMS, and menopausal symptoms across Native American and European traditions. The steroidal saponin diosgenin is structurally related to progesterone. However, one double-blind RCT found no effect on menopausal symptoms, and human in vivo conversion of diosgenin to hormones is unproven.

• wood betonyTraditional

  Wood betony is documented as an emmenagogue and uterine tonic with traditional use for menstrual regulation, dysmenorrhoea, PMS, menopausal symptoms, and uterine congestion. Traditional Austrian medicine recorded its use for gynaecological problems.